Motion pictures in education, a summary of the literature; source book for teachers and administrators

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MOTION PICTURES IN
EDUCATION

A Summary of the Literature

MOTION PICTURES IN
EDUCATION

A Summary of the Literature

Source Book for Teachers and Administrators

Compiled by

EDGAR DALE

Ohio State University

FANNIE W. DUNN

Teachers College, Columbia University

CHARLES F. HOBAN, Jr.

American Council on Education

ETTA SCHNEIDER

Teachers College, Columbia University

under the auspices of the
Committee on Motion Pictures in Education

of the
AMERICAN COUNCIL ON EDUCATION

New York

The H. W. Wilson Company
1937

Copyright 1937

by the
American Council on Education

Published December 1937
Printed in the United States of America

FOREWORD

Motion Pictures in Education : A Summary of the
Literature is the fourth of a series of publications issued
under the direction of the Committee on Motion Pictures
in Education of the American Council on Education. The
first was the National Visual Education Directory, a survey
of audio-visual equipment owned by elementary and sec-
ondary schools of the United States compiled by Mr. Cline
M. Koon and Mr. Allen W. Noble of the United States
Office of Education. The other two have been published
as American Council on Education Studies. The one, The
Motion Picture in Education : Its Status and Its Needs, is a
Committee report of the work of the Educational Motion
Picture Project of the Council and the major problems which
remain unsolved. The other, Teaching with Motion Pic-
tures: A Handbook of Administrative Practice by Mr.
Edgar Dale and Mr. Lloyd L. Ramseyer of Ohio State
University, is a handy reference for the teacher and admin-
istrator. It provides concrete answers to the most frequently
raised questions relating to motion pictures and other visual
aids.

The origin and development of Motion Pictures in Edu-
cation: A Summary of the Literature is described in the
introduction to this volume. For the generous gift of time
and effort in directing this work and in synthesizing the
materials appreciation is extended to Mr. Edgar Dale of
Ohio State University, Miss Fannie W. Dunn of Teachers
College, Columbia University, and Mr. Charles F. Hoban, Jr.,
of the American Council on Education. For the bibliographi-
cal compilation, digesting and editing of a large amount of
the material contained in this volume appreciation is extended

6 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

to Miss Etta Schneider of Teachers College, Columbia Uni-
versity. The Committee on Motion Pictures in Education
has been unfailing in its directive and advisory capacities
in connection with the Educational Motion Picture Project.
It comprises Mr. Ben G. Graham, Chairman, Mr. John E.
Abbott, Mr. W. W. Charters, Mr. Frank N. Freeman,
Mrs. Mary Langworthy, and Mr. Mark A. May.

George F. Zook
President

CONTENTS

FOREWORD 5

INTRODUCTION 9

PART ONE

THE ADMINISTRATION OF VISUAL AIDS
Fannie W . Dunn Etta Schneider

INTRODUCTION 15

I. Administration for a City

A. The Establishment of a City System 20

B. Some Experiences in Administering a City System 51
II. Administration Within a School Building 74

III. Systems for Filing and Cataloging 87

IV. Administration for a State 91

V. National Plans .101

PART Two

TEACHING WITH THE MOTION PICTURE

AND OTHER VISUAL AIDS

Fannie W. Dunn Etta Schneider

INTRODUCTION Ill

I. Teaching Techniques Generally Applicable to All Subjects 113
II. Teaching With Visual Aids in the Elementary School.. 133

III. Teaching With the Motion Picture and Other Visual
Aids in the Junior and Senior High Schools 181

IV. Motion Pictures for Adult Education 226

V. Motion Pictures in Higher Education 230

VI. Large Group Instruction With Films 237

PART THREE

SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
Charles F. Hoban, Jr.

INTRODUCTION 247

I. What Evaluators Have Found 248

II. Deriving Criteria for Selection 250

III. Digests of Published Literature 255

IV. Supplementary Bibliography 267

8 CONTENTS

PART FOUR

FILM PRODUCTION IN SCHOOLS
Edgar Dale

INTRODUCTION 271

I. Areas of Production

A. Creative Dramatics 272

B. School News Reels and Public Relations 279

C. Amateur Films as an Instructional Aid 285

II. Techniques of Production . 289

PART FIVE

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL

FILMS
Charles F. Hoban, Jr.

INTRODUCTION 307

I. Criteria for Evaluation of Experimental Research in
General 312

II. Neglected Factors in Experimental Procedure 317

III. Review of Experimental Data 334

IV. Implications of Experimental Data for Educational
Practice 356

V. Bibliography 361

PART Six

TEACHER PREPARATION IN VISUAL

EDUCATION
Fannie W. Dunn Etta Schneider

INTRODUCTION 369

I. The Need for Teacher Preparation 376

II. Trends in Teacher Preparation 385

III. How Can Teachers in Service Be Trained or Guided?

A. By In-Service Teacher Training Projects, Exten-
tion Courses, and Institutes 402

B. By Special Monographs or Handbooks 402

C. By Suggestions Incorporated in Elementary or
Secondary Courses of Study 404

D. By Supervisory Help 407

IV. What Is the Scope of Instruction in the Use of Visual
Aids? 415

V. Preparation for the Teaching of Motion-Picture Appre-
ciation 427

VI. Should Courses in Visual Instruction be Separate or

Should Guidance Be Offered in Special Methods Courses? 435
VII. Present Offerings in Visual Education 440

APPENDIX 457

INDEX 465

INTRODUCTION

The growth of interest in the possibilities of using educa-
tional motion pictures has led to a realization of the need
for an organized, selected bibliography which will help
research workers, teachers, and administrators to evaluate
what has been done, to consider what ought to be done, and
to proceed to plan what might be done with this new educa-
tional medium.

The student of visual education, attempting to study what
has been written, is confronted with a number of problems.
First, bibliographies are inadequate. Second, in order to find
what he is looking for he must thread his way among theses,
pamphlets, mimeographed reports, monographs, magazine
articles, and books. Third, he will face several difficulties
in securing materials for examination, namely: college libra-
ries do not usually maintain a complete set of educational
journals; most of the theses are unpublished and difficult to
obtain; and the number of books devoted to visual education
is small. That this body of information should be assembled
and coordinated for the use of workers in the field of visual
instruction is obvious. Even a cursory study of the material
indicates that it contains not only valuable records of per-
sonal experiences and significant generalizations, but a great
many important factual data as well.

The digests here included are an attempt to provide one
answer to this difficult problem. In this volume detailed sum-
maries have been made of significant articles, theses, and
books which have appeared during the past decade. They
have been classified and assembled, moreover, with editorial
comments to assist the reader in distinguishing the high
lights of the available literature.

10 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

The authors, it should be added, have organized and
interpreted the material in the light of the educative process
as a whole, and the relationship of the motion picture to it.
They have attempted to maintain a balanced view of the
field. They are less concerned with promoting the use of
the motion picture in education than they are with promoting
its effective use.

The reader will be interested in knowing how these mate-
rials were selected. Under the direction of Professor Dunn
and Miss Schneider a Works Progress Administration project
at Teachers College was initiated in 1934 to compile a bibli-
ography on the motion picture in education. After a few
thousand titles had been assembled, the workers attempted
to classify them under such categories as suggested them-
selves from the nature of the material. This led to such
classifications as the Administration of Visual Aids, Teacher
Preparation in Visual Education, Production of Motion Pic-
tures in Schools, Teaching Techniques, and the like.

The American Council on Education, through its project
on the educational film, subsequently expressed a desire to
assist in making this bibliography generally available. It was
decided that the most useful form which this bibliography
might assume would be a series of selected digests of the
more important references. An experimental series of digests
in the fields of "Administration of Visual Aids" and "Teacher
Preparation in Visual Education," respectively, were pub-
lished and distributed to workers in visual education in vari-
ous parts of the country.

These experimental volumes were mimeographed 250
copies of the section on "Administration," and 400 copies of
that on "Teacher Preparation" and submitted to leaders in
the field for criticism. The bulletin on "Administration of
Visual Aids" was accompanied by the following questions :

1. Have the authors missed important materials dealing
with the administration of visual aids? If so, what are they?

INTRODUCTION 11

2. Are these digests adequate? If not, how may they
be improved ?

3. Would the offering of, let us say, a quarterly digest
and bibliographical service be a legitimate function of the
proposed American Film Institute?

A similar questionnaire was sent with the "Teacher
Preparation" bulletin. Both these bulletins are now out of
print.

The suggestions received from this source were utilized
in rewriting these two experimental volumes, which now form
two chapters of this book. The suggestions were also used
in preparing the additional sections of the book.

The distribution of chapters for abstracting was based
on the past experience of the workers who cooperated. Dr.
Hoban was qualified to treat the sections on Research and
on Criteria for Evaluation because of the intensive study he
had made in connection with his Ph.D. dissertation. 1 Dr. Dale
has for some time been actively interested in promoting
school production of motion pictures, making him the logical
consultant for the section dealing with that topic. Professor
Dunn and Miss Schneider are interested in all aspects of the
field, and agreed to report on the remaining topics. Dr. Dale
assisted in editing and assembling the entire book.

The plan followed in selecting articles for inclusion in
the series of abstracts was as follows : First, the titles of
the articles contained in the bibliography were mimeographed
and sent to leaders in the field of visual education. These
persons were asked to check those articles which they con-
sidered important enough to be summarized in detail, and
to add others. This procedure was followed for the sections
on "Administration" and "Teacher Preparation."

Next, digests were written experimentally by several
competent persons to get a consensus of what should be

1 Hoban, Charles F., Jr. "A Critical Evaluation of the Experimental Literature
on Instructional Films." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. Duke University. 1935.

12 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

included. No attempt was made by the reviewers to evalu-
ate the conclusions stated in the various articles. They were
constantly aware of the needs of the persons using these
digests, and attempted to summarize the salient items of
information which would be most useful.

This book has been developed under the sponsorship of
the American Council on Education as one of the publications
related to its project on Motion Pictures in Education. It is
hoped that this volume will acquaint the reader with the
significant literature in the field, and will present information
necessary to those who wish to be intelligent about the con-
tribution of the motion picture to education.

Special acknowledgment is made to the following persons
for their valuable assistance in preparing these materials :
Alene Little, Ohio State University; Lloyd L. Ramseyer,
Ohio State University; Elias Katz, New York City; and
Hazel Gibbony, Ohio State University. Acknowledgment is
also made to the publishers for permission to summarize
articles from their periodicals.

The bibliography upon which this publication is based
was developed under the Works Progress Administration
Project 65-97-295, Sub-Project 23.

SEPTEMBER 30, 1937

PART ONE
THE ADMINISTRATION OF VISUAL AIDS

COMPILED BY

FANNIE W. DUNN
ETTA SCHNEIDER

THE ADMINISTRATION OF VISUAL AIDS

INTRODUCTION

Administration of visual aids has both mechanical and
educational aspects. It is concerned on the one hand with
the organization of materials from the standpoint of as-
sembly, classification, care, physical production, and distribu-
tion; and, on the other, with their integration into the
educational program, through courses of study and the
development of teaching techniques by means of teacher
training, supervision, and experimentation. Both aspects
have the common purpose of providing conditions favorable
to effective teaching, and thereby improving the quality of
education afforded by the school.

First steps in the utilization of visual aids are most
often toward the provision of the physical materials pic-
tures, prints, slides, films, and projection machines and
such organization of these as facilitates their ready avail-
ability for teachers' use. These steps are frequently, if not
usually, taken on the initiative of an individual teacher or
principal, who out of his own active interest gradually
develops the interest of a self-constituted committee or of
the administrative office. 1

Useful beginnings can be made with materials which call
for practically no budgetary provision. Such, for example,
are lists of "vicinities and specific places for field study
and excursions to gain acquaintance with living things in
their natural habitats"; 2 collections of still pictures, speci-

1 Emery, James N. "Visual Instruction in a Small City System."
2 Hollinger, John A. "Organization and Distribution of Visual Materials."

16 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

mens, and models ; 3 or bulletins of information as to sources
of free or inexpensive visual materials.

Such beginnings soon expand. Surveys of community
resources are made for sources of materials; children and
school patrons are interested in the exploration; ideas and
information are interchanged through exhibits and other
forms of publicity. Collection is supplemented by construc-
tion, by loan, and by exchange. Out of this almost inevitably
some financial support eventuates, and materials are pur-
chased through the efforts of children and teachers, through
parent-teacher groups, or through the board of education. 4

Materials and equipment most often purchased include
maps, globes, slides, still , films, stereographs, stereoscopes,
stereopticons, and opaque projectors. 5 The nature of aids,
as reported in the same study, varies according to the size
of the school. Smaller schools use mounted and unmounted
pictures more frequently; larger schools are apparently better
equipped for projection, slides being second only to maps in
types of aids most often reported by them, whereas they are
eighth in frequency of mention in small schools. A more
recent inclusion is the motion-picture projector, first silent
and more recently sound, and provision for access to films.

When interest in the provision of visual materials extends
beyond a single teacher, or at most a single school, some
change becomes necessary, since it is no more economical
to duplicate all items for every classroom than would be the
case with books. Some flexibility is inevitably sacrificed in
the course of the systematization that is involved, and the
degree of inflexibility is likely to increase with the size of
the system. A less ambitious program, making use of mate-
rials so inexpensive that each classroom and each school
shall have its permanent supply, may in some cases contribute

8 Campbell, Laurence R. "A Five Year Program."

4 Sputhall, Maycie. "Supervisor's Relation to Improvement of Materials of
Instruction."

8 N.E.A. Research Division. "A Survey of the Use of Teaching Aids."

ADMINISTRATION OF VISUAL AIDS 17

more to effective instruction than the machinelike regularity
with which certain forms of equipment circulate in some
cities. 6 This is, however, no more true and inevitable than
is the case with the library. Adequate provision and effec-
tive organization of materials will make certain types avail-
able in each classroom, as is now the case in most schools
with respect to maps, globes, and textbooks, and in many
with respect to supplementary texts, classroom libraries, and
school libraries. Materials less frequently or generally needed
will be centered in museums or distributing bureaus of
reasonable accessibility. 7 Careful selection will eliminate
wasteful expenditure, and organization with relation to cur-
riculum will greatly multiply fruitful use of available provi-
sion.

A whole series of important problems is here involved.
What is to be the basis of selection, and who is to make the
selection? How can curriculum and materials be interrelated
so as to be mutually beneficial and contribute most to the
educational objectives of the school? What agencies can
most economically and effectively render the services needed?
How can the service be most efficiently organized? What
shall be the unit of administration? What proportion of the
budget is to be assigned to the maintenance of the service?
These are the problems of the administration of visual aids
with which the articles summarized in this compilation are
concerned.

A fundamental consideration is the relation of visual
materials to the educational program. Some enthusiasts
would go so far as to regard visual work as a definite subject
of instruction with an allotted period on the program of
every classroom as strictly observed as periods of any sub-
ject in the curriculum. 8 The opposite position is that the use

8 Knowlton, D. C. "Problems of Administration of Visual Instruction."
'Enlow, E. R. "Some Tentative Standards for City Visual Education Pro-
grams."

'Chambers, Elsie I. "Are You Interested in Visual Education?"

18 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

of visual materials constitutes a method of instruction applic-
able to practically all fields. 9 Is it a method of fundamental
importance, on a par with the use of books, or is it merely
supplementary to the real work of the school ? 9 Have visual
materials a clear-cut purpose in the educational program, 10 or
are they mainly of entertainment and at best of vague and
general educational value ? 9 What is their value in counter-
acting handicaps imposed by large enrollments and crowded
classrooms, 11 more expeditious imparting of desired infor-
mation, 12 " 13 cutting down the number of repeaters or reducing
truancy ? n Is their more important service the contribution
they make to sound understanding, through a degree of
concreteness not possible with words alone, 13 so that in many
respects and for many purposes they may be superior to
the book as a means? Or are they rather to be regarded
as a means of arousing intellectual interest which will lead
to study of books ? 13

The foregoing values and purposes are not necessarily
alternatives; in many cases they are coordinate or inter-
related, but not in all. It is with respect to conflicting ideas
among them that a clear position must be taken, if principles
of selection and use are to be evolved. With respect to use,
for example, are many pictures to be shown or may better
results be obtained by intensive cumulative use of a few,
carefully selected? One writer points out that the viewing
of films may be very much like the experience of a party of
tourists trailing an overzealous guide through a European
art gallery. 14 Another warns against using too many pic-
tures at one time lest the exercise become only a picture
show. 15 These dangers exist because teachers lack a clear

9 Strayer, George D. "Administration of Visual Education."

10 Hollinger, John A. "Administration of Visual Aids in Education."
u Evans, Marian. "Budgeting for Visual Instruction."

12 "Suggestions for a Motion Picture Exchange." Volta Review.

18 Gregory, William M. "Visual Aids in the Classroom."

14 Knowlton, D. C. "Problems of Administration, etc."

16 Abrams, A. W. "Administration and Supervision of Visual Aids."

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 19

conviction of the educational, as opposed to the mere enter-
tainment, purpose in the use of visual materials.

In the light of fundamental educational values, the numer-
ous aspects of the administration of a program of visual aids
must eventually be evolved. Some of the problems treated
in the digests which follow are : selection of materials
(Dorris, 26, Enlow, 43, Gregory, 31, Southall, 35, Whitting-
hill, 69) ; curriculum and visual materials (Dorris, 26, Evans,
25, Gregory, 31, McClusky, 32, Southall, 31, Strayer, 20,
Reitze, 44, Campbell, 48, Angell, 49, Horning, 50, Gross, 84,
Chambers, 85, Brunstetter, 29; equipment needed (Campbell,

48, Emery, 48, Reitze, 44, Enlow, 43) ; distribution of ma-
terials (Crakes, 46, Dorris, 26, Evans, 25, Hollinger, 76,
McClusky, 34, Reitze, 45, Southall, 37, Strayer, 20) ; storage
of materials in a central office (Dorris, 27, Evans, 25, Mc-
Clusky, 34, Enlow, 43, Reitze, 44, Crakes, 46, Lain, 70,
Gregory, 68, Haworth, 71, Hollinger, 24, Sigman 72) ; qualifi-
cations and administrative relationship of the director of
visual education (Dorris, 27, Evans, 25, McClusky, 34, Reitze,
45, Whitcomb, 50, Whittinghill, 69) ; supervision, and in-
service education of teachers (Abrams, 95, Dorris, 26, Brun-
stetter, 29, Evans, 25, Gregory, 68, Haworth, 71, Horning,
50, McClusky, 34, Reitze, 45, Roach, 73, Southall, 35,
Strayer, 20, Whittinghill, 69) ; experimentation through the
department of visual education (Gregory, 68, McClusky, 34,
Reitze, 45, Strayer, 20, Whittinghill, 69) ; developing a pro-
gram of visual education (Brunstetter, 29, Campbell, 48,
Hester, 86, Hoek, 86, Smith, 83) ; costs and budget (Angell,

49, Crakes, 46, Emery, 48, Emery, 48, Evans, 25, Enlow, 43,
Gregory, 68, Hollinger, 24, Reitze, 45 ) ; status and trends in
administration (Division of Research of the N.R.A., 16,
Southall, 35, Bard, 54) ; systems of filing and cataloging
materials (87-91).

Out of many possible organizations, that selected for this
compilation is, with the exception of the third section, on the

20 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

basis of units of administration. Articles dealing with city,
state and national departments of visual education have been
summarized in the order named.

I. ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY

A. The Establishment of a City System

The articles by Strayer and McClusky, although written
ten years ago, are still pertinent. In them is defined the
relation of a visual-education department to other admin-
istrative departments in the city system. It is important that
this relation be clearly perceived by the visual-education
supervisor both for the proper organization and administra-
tion of his department and to promote a spirit of cooperation.

Strayer, George D. (Institute of Educational Research,
Teachers College, Columbia University) "The Administra-
tion of Visual Education." School and Society. 22:234-5.
August 22, 1925. An abstract of an address delivered before
the Section on Visual Education of the National Education
Association, Indianapolis, June 30, 1925.
The administration of visual education must be considered
in the light of the relation of visual education to the whole educa-
tional program. If, as many of us believe, visual aids should
be provided for teachers in practically all fields, then the prob-
lem consists in the introduction of a method of instruction rather
than in the actual administration of any unit of the school system.
The director of visual education should work in cooperation
with principals and supervisors, heads of departments in high
schools, and individual teachers. He is essentially a staff worker
who should be assigned, from time to time, to different parts
of the school system so that he may aid in developing the use
of visual materials in particular situations. He most certainly
is not a line officer who is placed in control of some particular
unit of the school system. His work in the school system is
comparable to that of a director a director of research, for
example, or of the psychological clinic, or of the health service.
We need further investigation as to the most economical
and efficient method of using pictures, slides, stereographs, and
films. The method of distribution now found in many com-
munities suggests that these visual aids are thought of as supple-

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 21

mentary to the real work of the school, rather than of the same
fundamental importance as books. Some indication of our ulti-
mate solution of this perplexing problem may be found in our
organization of classroom and school libraries as opposed to a
dependence upon a central library.

The director of visual education, in cooperation with special-
ists throughout the school system, must provide for the training
of teachers in service. We cannot hope to achieve the results
that are predicted through the use of visual materials without
training teachers in this new technique. Our teachers' colleges
and normal schools may be expected to include work in this field
in their curricula, but for the teachers already in service it is
essential that demonstrations of the efficient use of visual ma-
terials be provided and that courses of study be revised to include
definite instruction to teachers in the use of these materials.

Since visual aids are used to improve instruction rather than
to provide entertainment, the classification of pupils with respect
to training and ability is essential. The herding of children into
large auditoriums in order to exhibit a film that may have little
or no relation to the work that most of them are doing, or the
use of the stereopticon slide or stereograph merely to occupy
time, has done much to delay the development of this most im-
portant technique in our public-school systems.

If we are to take visual education seriously, we shall have
to think in terms of equipping every classroom with a proper
electrical outlet for the portable stereopticon that we plan to
use. We shall just as certainly need to build our auditoriums
small enough 16 for a group of children of the same grade to
work comfortably with the teacher in those subjects in which the
slides or film offer an important aid to instruction. We shall
have to provide space in the classroom, in the auditorium, and
in the central storeroom, for the proper housing of the materials
which are to be used.

Many other administrative problems wait upon more exten-
sive investigations than have yet been undertaken. We must
discover just how much it will cost to provide adequate visual
aids for all subjects in which they can be used to advantage. We
must discover how the courses of study in individual schools may
be adjusted to allow for the use of particular materials at differ-
ent periods during the year. We must learn to choose from

M This recommendation, made in 1925, was based on the necessity of a
special booth for the 35 mm. projector, used exclusively at that time. Ed.

22 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

among the visual aids that are now provided those that will
bring the best results in each situation. We must learn to what
extent we should vary the use of visual materials in relation
to the intellectual capacities of different groups of children.

These are some of the issues that must be considered by the
director of visual education. The compass of his inquiries and
the validity of his findings will have much to do with the develop-
ment of this important method in education.

McClusky, F. Dean. "Finding the Facts of Visual Education :

The Administrative Status of Officers in Charge of Bureaus."

Educational Screen. 4:72-6. February 1925.

The administration of visual education is a complex task.
New devices complicate methods of instruction and require
formulation of special techniques. The relation of departments
of visual education to other phases of educational administra-
tion is a major factor to be considered. According to Hollis's
study in 1924, the status of visual-education directors is not
clearly defined. They are usually people already employed, who
have been given additional assignments.

The director of visual education should not be a supervisor.
To supervise personally all visual materials would call for more
work than the director could handle and would cause friction
between him and other supervisors. The administration of
visual education should be in terms, not of devices, techniques,
or methods, but of subject matter. There are supervisors of
art and music, for example, but not of the lecture method or
the laboratory method. A visual-education supervisor, there-
fore, would not fit into the administrative set-up, and would
either exaggerate his position, or become a tool in the hands of
other supervisors.

Among the functions suitable to a director of visual educa-
tion are those of assisting in the organization of courses of
study and, with other administrators, the collection of visual
materials and their coordination with the course of study. The
ultimate function of a city school department of visual education
would be that of lending expert advice and assistance to teachers
and principals; who would collect for their immediate and con-
tinued use those visual aids which they would keep permanently
in their schools ; and to secure in return the cooperation of all
in collecting and distributing those materials which would supple-
ment and enrich the materials in the possession of each indi-

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 23

vidual. Directors should define their own position by a spirit
of intelligent cooperation.

Cooperation is difficult where the bureau is located in the
state extension service. A state bureau may, however, prepare
and collect materials for the use of small schools that would
otherwise find it difficult to use visual aids. A state conference
on visual education, such as those organized by the Universities
of Missouri and Utah, would be very helpful, as would the
distribution of bulletins of information.

Summary and conclusions. A director of visual education
should not be a supervisor comparable to those in music and
art. He has the responsibility of seeing that all visual aids are
coordinated through his office. This should be done in a cooper-
ative spirit, not in a spirit of domination. He must check on
what is being done in the line of visual education in all depart-
ments and know that it is being done properly. He can
accomplish these ends by organization of visual-education con-
ferences, correlation of visual aids with courses of study, estab-
lishment of a clearing house for information in his office,
encouragement of experiments on the value and use of visual
aids, and preparation of bulletins and circulars on techniques
and methods.

Hollinger, John A. (Pittsburgh) "The Organization and Dis-
tribution of Visual Materials." Educational Screen. 5 :147-
50. March 1926.

A few outstanding methods of organization and distribution
of visual materials are as follows :

1. Locate and announce vicinities and specific places for
field study and excursions to gain acquaintance with living
things in their natural habitats. Field study and excursions may
be for (a) teachers and advanced students only, either because
adults would be less likely to destroy property, or because such
trips would make them more symapthetic with their surround-
ings, or (b) for classes of students in elementary, secondary, and
higher schools. The classes must have specific purposes, and
results should be carefully checked. These trips provide mental
training, as well as subject-matter training.

Favorable localities and specific places can be located by state
normal schools, museums and historical societies, industrial, com-
mercial, and business concerns, or by specialized organizations,

24 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

such as the American Nature Society, State Game Commission,
and so on.

Information for the use of the public schools should be
submitted to designated centers from which it may be distributed
to individual teachers. Such centers might be, for example, the
U. S. Office of Education, the State Department of Public
Instruction, offices of the county superintendents and city super-
intendents of schools, offices of supervising principals.

2. Create centers for the collection and distribution of
materials that should be used as visual aids. There should be a
national center for materials of national importance ; a state
center; and a center for local distribution either a city visual-
education center working closely with local museums, or a center
in the extension divisions of normal schools or universities. Each
individual school might also have a definite organization for the
collection and distribution of visual aids. If the school is not too
large, this organization may center in the principal's office;
otherwise some teacher in the building should be given a reduced
teaching load to allow some time for the control of visual aids
used in the building.

Until better educational films are produced, centers for the
selection and distribution of motion pictures are especially
needed. Good films are expensive and should move quickly from
class to class, but the integration of the film with the lesson
should not be sacrificed for the sake of rapid circulation.

The article by Marian Evans will explain further the
duties of the staff of a visual-education department and the
economic problems to be considered. The section in Dorris's
book on administration is also quite explicit, although the
figures, which applied to the Berkeley schools in 1919, are
no longer helpful.

Evans, Marian (San Diego, Calif.) "Budgeting for Visual
Instruction." School Executives Magazine. 53:19-20. Sep-
tember 1933.

Modern schools demand a visual-instruction center for these
reasons: (1) Parents realize the value of visual aids and many
parents' organizations raise funds for equipment. (2) Teachers
and principals endorse them as essential materials, especially for

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 25

enlarged class registers. (3) Visual aids can teach local and
current community history in flexible form; books cannot be
so detailed or supplemented so easily. The scope of the depart-
ment should extend to all instructional materials except books
and supplies and should include materials of multiple-sensory
appeal.

A visual-education center should serve as a collecting, or-
ganizing, and distributing center for visual and other instruc-
tional aids ; a teacher-training and advisory bureau on techniques
and use of materials; a production plant and photography
laboratory for making aids ; a testing division for the evaluation
of visual materials and equipment; a correlating center for
educational organization such as museums, galleries, zoos, and
so on ; a center for the display of students' work.

The work of the director cannot be done by the librarian or
warehouse staff because the director must be thoroughly
acquainted with curriculum content and methods, from kinder-
garten through high school. He should also have business
experience for purchasing, producing, and testing visual aids. A
specially trained staff includes : the director, a technical director,
a teacher-and-research-assistant for films, another for slides, and
other aids clerk, secretary, and so on. There should also be a
film inspector, emergency carrier, and janitor for part-time work.

Expenditures of a visual-education budget usually fall under
the following categories :

1. Funds for the circulation of visual aids, such as exhibits,
specimens, realia; slides, film slides; silent and sound films;
pictures, charts, posters, plates, portfolios; stereographs; still
films; photographs.

2. Funds for the maintenance of a department and upkeep
of the equipment. Expenses include the cost of photographic
equipment; the developing, printing, and production of films;
the upkeep and purchase of departmental demonstration equip-
ment; the assembly section, i.e., film editing and repair, classify-
ing, organizing, and mounting of pictures, posters, slides,
exhibits; shipping and postage; upkeep of projection equipment
in schools.

3. Salaries.

4. Necessary funds for the installation of standard equip-
ment permanently placed in schools. This expense should be
charged to capital outlay or to the building fund.

26 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Often auxiliary agencies pay all costs for visual education,
except salaries.

In figuring the annual allotment, take the percentage of
the per-pupil daily attendance to cover all expenses except the
initial cost of equipment (which, as has been said, should be
taken care of in the building fund). If paralleled with the
amount allowed for books, the rate would be 75c to $1 per
average daily attendance for elementary-school pupils and $2 to
$6 per pupil in high schools.

Visual instruction might even cut down on the number of
repeaters, which cost about $112 each, annually. It may also cut
down truancy because the class work will be more interesting.

Dorris, Anna V. "Administrative Problems of Visual Instruc-
tion in the Public Schools." In Visual Instruction in the
Public Schools. Ginn and Co. Boston. 1928. Part III,
p. 369-426.

Plans for teacher training include :

1. General instructional classes once a week for five or
six weeks, held by the head of the department of visual instruc-
tion with attendance optional. Lectures and demonstration
lessons.

2. General training for rural schools through conferences
with rural supervisors and through annual institutes and section
work.

3. Teacher-training colleges to give courses in visual educa-
:ion to prospective teachers and in-service teachers.

The course at State Teachers College in San Francisco,
Jalifornia, in 1922 included personal visits by the instructor to
^chools whose principals had requested concrete suggestions for
using visual aids. The content of the course included instruc-
tion in techniques and principles for using visual instruction, a
discussion of sources of materials and equipment and how to
use them, and consideration of how to enrich the curriculum by
visual instruction.

A visual-instruction department must select, buy, and circulate
materials for every subject in all grades of the curriculum and
must be equipped to guide teachers in the use of materials and
equipment. It is therefore separate from, yet must cooperate
closely with, every other administrative department of the
system.

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 27

The general duties of the director of visual education are
many. They include the organization and supervision of the
department and office help ; making up and spending the budget ;
consulting groups of teachers, principals, and supervisors, and
advising with them on types of materials needed; selecting and
buying materials for all subjects in all grades; organizing and
classifying materials ; selecting and buying all types of apparatus ;
issuing bulletins on materials on hand and announcing meetings ;
holding teachers' meetings by grades and demonstrating the
use of apparatus and materials; compiling a course of study,
or teachers' guide, with the cooperation of teachers, principals,
and others, to offer suggestions for use of different materials
in various types of lessons; supervising the organization and
compilation of an annual catalog; visiting schools to help teachers
with their special problems ; giving advice and assistance to
community clubs; conducting special college courses in visual
instruction; supervising the preparation of the annual report to
the superintendent of schools and the board of education;
occasionally previewing films with teachers.

To perform these varied duties, the director must be a
scholar with a broad knowledge of the fundamental principles
of modern education. He must know subject matter and tech-
niques of teaching. He must have an extensive teaching knowl-
edge and, if possible, teaching and supervisory experience. He
must know primary, junior-, and senior-high-school fields
thoroughly. He should have a reasonable amount of business
ability and a thorough knowledge of the field of visual education.
He must know how to cooperate with supervisors and faculty.

The director's staff should include a mechanical expert, an
assistant and stenographer, an office helper, a delivery man.

The Berkeley, California, schools in 1919 used the following
procedure in setting up a department. A room was set aside
as a visual-instruction center and equipped with shelves, and
so on. Materials, such as slides and exhibits, were gathered
from all schools and commercial agencies. One portable motion-
picture machine and two stereopticon lanterns were purchased.
(All but two of the schools had already owned such equipment.)
A small portion of the budget was set aside for rental of strictly
educational films. Lists of such films had been sent out by a
committee and referred to the course of study. Letters were
sent to commercial and industrial firms for material. Slides,

28 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

pictures, and stereographs were, in time, carefully selected and
purchased. They were then classified. Pictures from the
National Geographic were mounted and filed. Habitat groups
of birds and small animals were made by the Academy of Na-
tural History at Golden Gate Park. (The cases had been made
by manual-training students.) Monthly teachers' meetings were
held by grades. A chairman of visual instruction for each school
was selected.

The budget was $5000 to $6000 annually. Films did not
have to be purchased, since the University of California's distri-
bution service was in the same city.

A monograph by Edgar Dale and Lloyd L. Ramseyer, of
Ohio State University, entitled Teaching with Motion Pic-
tures: A Handbook of Administrative Practice contains a
summary of the problems of visual instruction as expressed
by administrators, with suggestions for their solution. The
book was published in 1937 by the American Council on
Education, Washington, D.C. and should be consulted in its
entirety.

The recommendations which follow were formulated by
Brunstetter after an intensive program in cooperation with
a group of school systems containing schools of various
sizes and types, so selected as to furnish a cross section of
the educational field. The outlines for a program in the
Hershey, Pennsylvania, and Evansville, Indiana, schools,
respectively, are included on pages 62 and 63. Brunstetter's
suggestions represent recent judgments concerning effective
administration for visual education, and are concerned almost
entirely with the educational sound film. The ideal set-up,
however, includes all possible types of visual aids.

The article written by Gregory in 1927 stresses the need
for correlating visual aids with the course of study and
illustrates with the Cleveland course of study.

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 29

Brunstetter, M. R. "Organizing an Audio-Visual Instruction
Program." In How to Use the Educational Sound Film.
University of Chicago Press. Chicago. 1937. Chapter IV,
p. 73-95.

The use of films and other instructional materials should
be developed as a program, with all the planning and coordination
that the term implies administrative services, integration with
the curriculum, assistance to teachers in the use of the medium,
a study of problems relating to the mechanical aspects of the
program.

Creative administration demands vision before supervision
in outlining the direction of the educational program. It solves
the minor problems of class schedules, plant facilities, and the
provision of supplies, so that the teacher is free to concentrate
on the growth of the students in his charge.

Effective utilization of audio-visual materials of instruction
must be planned in terms of local objectives, curriculum needs,
available services, and plant facilities. Preliminary investigation
is needed of the courses of study for which superior films are
available; courses of study which need more effective materials
of instruction; courses of study for which teachers need more
command of subject matter; desirable courses which might be
initiated if suitable materials of instruction can be secured;
special projects and activities, such as extracurricular work,
teacher training, adult education, and the like, to which audio-
visual aids might contribute.

The next step is to make a survey of all the materials owned
by the local system to determine the extent to which each type
is used, how materials are secured and distributed, what facilities
are available for projection, and so on. This survey should take
into account administrative provisions as well as the teachers'
competence in the use of materials.

A survey should also be made of the local staff to determine
the individual or individuals most competent to direct the
projected program. If committee work is to be organized, which
teachers or principals are best fitted to participate ? What should
be the duties of a special director, other than those related to
audio-visual aids? Is course-of -study revision contemplated
which could be coordinated with certain aspects of the program?

30 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

The classroom teacher should be given ample opportunity
to cooperate in carrying out this survey and in planning for
the development of a program.

Planning the film program. There are five elements in a
program for audio-visual education: (a) training teachers in the
effective use of audio- visual aids; (b) selecting audio- visual
materials and integrating them with the curriculum; (c) develop-
ing new areas of instruction; (d) providing films, equipment,
and projection facilities; and (e) organizing the administrative,
clerical, and mechanical services. Each of these elements may
be developed in three steps: (1) preliminary preparations, (2)
experimentation and study, and (3) expansion.

In school systems where efficient departments of visual in-
struction already exist, the problem would be only that of organiz-
ing the use of sound films into the system. [The provisions for
such a program in the Englewood (New Jersey) Junior High
School are described.]

Organising services for an audio-visual instruction program.
In beginning the use of sound films, the administrative, clerical,
and mechanical services usually can be handled by existing
personnel. There are advantages other than financial when the
present staff administers the initial stages of the program. This
insures the immediate participation of all individuals on the
staff and familiarizes them with the problems which are to be
solved. Solutions for routine activities, such as the distribution
of films, will be more readily achieved by persons who are already
acquainted with the school system.

Administration in one school system with seven elementary
schools and a large junior-senior high school has been placed
in the care of one elementary-school principal ( for the elementary
schools) and the biology teacher (for the junior-senior high
school). An interne teacher is in charge of handling the ma-
terials in the central library.

In a school system of eleven buildings, efficient administra-
tion has been carried on through the efforts of a part-time
director assisted by a secretary-clerk [A program for a large
school system is outlined as suggested for the Evansville, Indiana,
schools. The program is summarized in the present volume,
p. 63.]

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 31

Selecting audio-visual materials and integrating them with
the curriculum. Materials may be selected and integrated by
committees consisting of teachers who have before them certain
set standards to guide them. A permanent reviewing committee
might be set up to recommend rental films. Integration with
the curriculum should involve no more than the listing of certain
films available to teachers in connection with specific units of
instruction. This might be made possible by mimeographed
bulletins from time to time.

Developing new areas and modes of instruction. There is
much evidence of the value of the sound film in platoon schools
where several classes view the film in the auditorium. Health
or music programs adapt themselves well to auditorium use.
In certain school systems the availability of sound-film material
is facilitating the introduction of elementary-science courses.
Many high schools are teaching appreciation of the sound film
as an art form in regularly scheduled classes.

Gregory, William M. (Director, Educational Museum, Cleve-
land, Ohio) "Visual Aids in the Classroom." Elementary
School Principal's Sixth Yearbook. 6:251-60. April 1927.

Visual aids assist the pupil in many ways. They give con-
creteness to ideas, connect words with objects, visualize factual
conditions, economize time in understanding facts, interest pupils
with objective materials, offer substitutes for excursions, furnish
an approach to problems, create ideals, stimulate imagination.

Before visual aids are incorporated into the curriculum,
proper experimentation must be carried out as to the desirability
of using each type of aid and the time and place for its use.
Purchase of materials must be made regularly, not spasmodically.
Proper organization is essential for any effective use of visual
materials.

School organization necessary. There should be units of
activities based upon visual material. The experimental school
should apply and evaluate this procedure; the results may then
be made a part of the course of study.

There should be unit graded sets of illustrative materials
classified as to cost (determined by classroom tests made before
the purchase of the material) and authenticity (whether the
material was made by educators or commercial firms). The

32 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

visual material should be listed in each course of study and in
a separate catalog. The material should be kept in repair by
an expert.

The distribution of units of visual aids should be at the
opportune time for the activities of pupils in regular classroom
lessons. Detail as to delivery methods depends upon the size
of the school or community. Economy is effected by a regular
delivery-and-collection route to the teachers.

The classroom use of visual aids depends upon the teacher.
There must be definite techniques, however, for their use and
teachers should be specially trained in these techniques. A set
of standards for each type of aid should be set up. Visual aids
not closely related to classroom activities should be excluded.

Some school systems issue a catalog of lantern slides, films,
specimens, and so forth, that they make available to schools.
Teachers select the aids they want at the time they think best.
Many of these lists reveal why visual aids have not been more
rapidly accepted in modern education. Three-quarters of the
pictures listed by some schools and state universities are advertis-
ing films of no educational value ; many of the lantern slides are
quite unrelated to actual school activities.

The Cleveland course of study, on the other hand, illustrates
how visual aids may be made an integral part of the curriculum.
Among the visual aids used are mounted pictures, lantern slides,
exhibits, and motion pictures one a term, if any.

McClusky discusses the problems of administering a de-
partment of visual education after tracing the steps in the
visual education movement. He views city administration
from a broad, nation-wide point of view and cites instances
of varying techniques in operation in several cities of the
United States.

McClusky, F. Dean (Director of Scarborough School, New
York; President, National Academy of Visual Instruction)
"The Administration of Visual Instruction in the Public
Schools." Junior-Senior High School Clearing House. 5 :
207-14. December 1930.

The increase in the number of available photographs and
illustrated textbooks and the cheapness of slides and stereo-
graphs have made visual education a necessity and not a luxury.

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 33

There have been three distinct phases in the development of
organized visual education :

The school museum movement (1905-14). See chapters on
"Educational Work of American Museums," in annual reports
of the U. S. Commissioner of Education, 1913-14-15-16.

The university extension movement (1915-19). The Bureau
of Education in Washington, D. C, deposited 100 reels of film
in each of over twenty extension departments of education,
thus giving an impetus to the circulation of visual aids.

The creation of visual- education bureaus in city school sys-
tems. The Chicago bureau, the first established, resulted from
a projection club that ten elementary-school principals started
in 1895. The stereopticons they purchased were finally placed
in the care of a visual-education bureau. Many other cities
have since established such departments.

Directors of city visual-education centers are usually ap-
pointed because of their success in handling visual aids as teach-
ers, principals, or supervisors. Many of them have handled
visual aids without much financial assistance.

The responsibilities of the director are as follows : to keep
in touch with sources of new material ; to select wisely, to con-
struct, or to reconstruct material and correlate it with the curric-
ulum; to interview teachers and principals with respect to the
handling of visual aids; to administer the routine of the depart-
ment; to follow up breakage and delays in transportation; to
supervise the use of materials ; to help teachers with special
exhibits; to make tabular studies of the extent of the service;
to arrange for proper dissemination of information regarding
the rules; to prepare rules and regulations for borrowing
materials ; to prepare or arrange for the preparation of lesson
units correlating with visual aids; to render a report at stated
intervals to his superior.

The well-qualified director should have thorough experience
and training in handling people, in the technique of teaching,
and in educational administration; he should have training in
the science and art of photography, in the preparation of museum
exhibits, in the handling of projection equipment, and in prepar-
ing catalogs and reports.

The assistant director usually does just what his title implies ;
that is, he assists the director in carrying out his duties. In some

34 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

cases he carries on certain of the duties himself, leaving others
for the director to conduct. In Pittsburgh, for example, the
assistant director carries on work with nature study and the
director is free to carry on other activities. In New York City,
the director is a lecturer and the assistant director is responsible
for a large portion of the work.

A visual-education staff also includes stenographers, clerks,
chauffeur, and licensed operator.

Cost of visual education. A survey of the National Academy
of Visual Instruction showed that thirty- four cities and twenty-
three states spent over five million dollars on visual education
in the period 1923-30. (See McClusky, "Progress of Visual
Instruction in the United States." Educational Screen. Septem-
ber 1930.) Of the five million dollars, 51 per cent was used for
salaries, 38 per cent for the purchase of new materials and
equipment, and 1 1 per cent for operating expenses.

City bureaus own about $300,000 worth of equipment and
materials; state bureaus about $600,000 worth.

Methods and extent of the distribution of visual materials.
Bureaus distribute films by (a) "circuit method," and (b)
special-order method. Under the circuit method, rented, loaned,
and school-owned films are sent to schools in a regular system
of exchange. Under the special-order method, the bureau acts
as a broker for ordering films, or stores films in its library
until they are desired. The pedagogical value of the special-
order method is evident. St. Louis combines the advantages of
both methods by having the delivery truck stop regularly at the
school for teachers' special orders.

Slides are usually sent out by the special-order method. The
best methods of transporting visual materials are by truck, special
messenger, or school messenger.

City museums, libraries, and other institutions have co-
operated closely with school departments of visual instruction.
(See, for example, museums and libraries in Buffalo, Chicago,
Cleveland, Detroit, Los Angeles, Newark, New York, Oakland,
Philadelphia, Pittsburgh.) They attempt to organize exhibits,
and so on, in terms of school curricula. They often "take the
museum to the schools."

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 35

After considering these proposals for setting up a city
system of visual education, it might be well to note the find-
ings of a study of supervisory relationship to materials of
instruction, based on an informal questionnaire sent to mem-
bers of the Department of Supervisors and Directors of
Instruction of the National Education Association. The
findings represent current practices in administering various
materials of instruction, including visual aids.

Southall, Maycie. "Supervisor's Relation to Improvement of
Materials of Instruction." Materials of Instruction, The
Eighth Yearbook of the Department of Supervisors and
Directors of Instruction, National Education Association.
Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia Uni-
versity. New York. 1935. p. 149-83.

Determining the materials needed. In answer to the ques-
tions, (1) what is being done in the system to provide better
and more adequate materials of instruction, and (2) what in
their opinions should be the supervisor's responsibility and how
it should be met, there were sixty replies.

Materials of instruction are denned as those tangible, visual,
auditory, kinesthetic, gustatory, and olfactory aids to learning
that are actually used by pupils. In selecting materials, it was
the general opinion that consideration should be given first to
the children their interests, needs, and abilities; second, to the
educational objectives that the materials are expected to further;
third, to the size and organization of the local system; fourth,
to the amount and kinds of material already on hand. The
resources of the local environment and the funds available for
purchasing materials must also be considered.

Various people were reported as being responsible for de-
termining what materials were needed. In some cases, the
supervisor decides upon the most desirable types in view of
curriculum needs; in other cases, the selection is made by the
superintendent of the bureau of supplies. Sometimes staff
members prepare a list of materials needed in their respective
departments, or requisitions may be drawn by heads of depart-
ments and others. Again, a committee of teachers the member-
ship based on significant work done in the field in question

assists in finding materials most needed. In other cases, the.

36 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

responsibility is given to a teachers' advisory committee, selected
by teachers, which meets frequently with the supervisor. Or
special committees may be appointed to investigate new materials
and make recommendations annually to joint conferences of
teachers, principals, and supervisors. Or the supervisor may
act in an advisory capacity to committees, such as (a) a special
committee appointed to investigate specific materials, (b) com-
mittees working on the course of study, (c) a teachers' advisory
council.

It is noteworthy that the majority of those reporting utilize
the cooperation of many people in determining the instructional
materials most needed.

Needs are determined by observation of materials used in
other systems, by study of equipment listed in catalogs, or
through the recommendations and requests of teachers and
pupils. Suggestions are gained, in some cases, by reference to
students' records: curriculum records (used as a basis in
nine of the replies), pupils' reading records, as revealed by
library cards showing books and magazines most used, or school
progress records and standardized test results, indicating weak-
nesses in the work with students. Experimentation was used
by only four supervisors and usually for new materials, espe-
cially new textbooks.

It is important that the supervisor lay before the super-
intendent the needs of the pupils in such a way that materials
shall receive a just share of the school budget at every grade
level. He should also acquaint parents and organized groups
with the need for various types of materials and their use.

Developing an appreciation of visual aids. It was reported
that an appreciation of the educational value of visual aids was
developed by means of study groups held in classrooms. These
groups investigated creative materials of various kinds, new
and old materials available for the same purpose, new environ-
mental material, the adaptation of materials to the needs of
exceptional children, and techniques in the use of different
materials. Appreciation was also stimulated through demonstra-
tions, by materials committees, by visiting other schools, by
teachers' excursions, and by the exhibition and circulation of
materials.

Sources. Sources for commercial materials are found to be
exhibits (5 types), reading books and magazines, studying

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 37

advertisements, analyzing curriculum records, interviewing or
talking with others. Sources for environmental materials are
found through surveys of the community, guides for teachers
and parents, and through the use of children as explorers.

Selection of materials. Materials are selected in the follow-
ing ways : by experimentation especially for new materials
before their purchase; by using the expert opinion of specialists
in the respective fields (resorted to by only four supervisors) ;
by using local opinion, either of one person or of many; by
exhibits or displays; by requisition, either from lists of mate-
rials already available in the Central Bureau or from additional
lists of suggestions.

A threefold responsibility was recommended for the super-
visor in the selection of instructional materials. The supervisor
must be well informed in order to guide in the selection of
materials. He must know trends in the improvement of
materials of instruction, research findings, new materials pub-
lished, recommendations by specialists in different fields, and
reactions of teachers and pupils to materials being used.
Recommended lists of materials should be compiled with the
cooperation of teachers and principals and should be kept up
to date.

Instructional materials are secured by purchase through
the board of education, through parent-teacher groups, or
through children and teachers. Materials are also secured
by collection, by construction, and by loan and exchange.

Making materials available. Various systems were reported.
In some instances, there are centrally located depositories in
a central office, or in the central library, or in the supervisor's
office. Only two supervisors reported a materials bureau one
under the direction of a full-time person, the other under the
direction of a group of teachers who took turns in keeping it
open. In other cases, there is an exchange of materials by
teachers, or a classroom is used as a depository, or there is
a materials bureau located in the principal's office in each school.

Promoting more efficient use of materials. This is ac-
complished through demonstrations (a) of how to use new
materials correctly, (b) of new uses for old materials, (c) of
how certain materials may be used for several purposes, (d) of
how to substitute inexpensive for expensive materials, (e) to

38 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

emphasize the purpose of materials that teachers are not using,
(f) to encourage teachers to use environmental materials. Other
methods of promoting efficiency are through discussion, ex-
hibits, printed and mimeographed guides, courses of study, and
mtervisitation.

Recommendations. Recommendations offered include the
following: The supervisor should help teachers organize and
administer efficiently the materials available; waste of all kinds
should be eliminated; cooperative purchase and use of material
should be encouraged whenever possible; a schedule should be
used to promote borrowing of rare or expensive materials in
advance ; cheaper substitutes should be used whenever advisable ;
teachers should be induced to make more use of environmental
materials; opportunities to see materials used more effectively
should be given teachers through demonstration, exhibits, and
mtervisitation; teachers should be stimulated to experiment with
many creative uses of materials; new uses of materials observed
in the system or elsewhere should be reported to teachers.

Evaluating materials in terms of child growth. Materials
are evaluated subjectively by (a) supervisor appraisal, (b)
teacher appraisal, (c) cooperative appraisal of supervisors,
teachers, and principals, and (d) pupil appraisal. One super-
visor said that "the child himself is the best evaluator." Other
means of evaluation reported the use of standardized test results,
individual and group records, and experimentation.

Summary. The improvement of materials of instruction
might be directed along three lines: (a) to meet the needs of
the changing school program, (b) to comply with research
findings regarding children's interests, needs, and abilities, (c) to
be adapted to individual differences.

Supervisors may cooperate with others in improving mate-
rials as follows: (1) They may cooperate with state and national
committees that are experimentally preparing materials. (2)
They may stimulate discovery of new materials by local groups.
(3) They may cooperate with publishers by letting them know
which materials are unsatisfactory. (4) They may write mate-
rials that are useful to teachers and children. (5) They should
welcome suggestions.

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 39

The abstracts which follow are based on plans that the
writers evolved to fit school systems of varying size.

The plan described by Worrell is based on the author's
experiences in administering such a program in a small
school system in New Jersey. The information given in
this article is very concrete and up-to-date.

Enlow's program is a committee report for the National
Academy of Visual Instruction. He poses three practical
questions and recommends ways of answering them. His
figures are average and may be applied to cities of 100,000
population or over.

Reitze sets up, from data drawn from over 150 school
systems, what he calls a" flexible plan, applicable to a city
of about 350,000 population. Reitze used this material as
subject for a thesis, "Organization, Functions and Admin-
istration of a City Visual Aids Department." The plan is
complete and extensive.

Crakes, as principal of the high school in Moline, Illinois,
formulated a plan for cities of 30,000 to 50,000 population.
This plan offers practical suggestions for its execution, such
as names and addresses of dealers and distributors, cost esti-
mates, and so on.

Emery's article dates back to 1925 and may not have
many implications for present-day administrators; for ex-
ample, provision is made only for 35-mm. motion pictures,
used exclusively at that time. The abstract is worth reading,
however.

Worrell, F. Marshall (Junior High School, Englewood, NJ.)
"Establishing a Program of Supervised Audio- Visual Educa-
tion." Educational Screen. 16:6-8. January 1937.

Physical organization of a department of visual education.

The task of a director of visual education is to place at the
disposal of the instructor the materials most useful in the teach-
ing of her problem and through suggestion and example aid
her to achieve perfection in their use. A department of visual

40 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

education might be organized somewhat as follows as to per-
sonnel and visual-aid centers:

The personnel should include a director of audio-visual
education, who will be directly responsible to the superintendent
of schools, assisted by a visual-education committee made up
of one teacher from each school, each responsible to her prin-
cipal and to the director for the successful execution of the
program in her school. There should also be technical assistance.
The cooperation of the art supervisor, music supervisor,
industrial-arts supervisor, or other such persons who might
furnish technical information in their particular fields would be
valuable. Heads of departments may also cooperate in cor-
relating visual materials with the course of study. Additional
assistance may be given by teachers interested in photography
who might make photographic materials with the cooperation
of a photography club; by a motion-picture operators' club,
made up of interested students of junior- and senior-high-school
age and trained by the director to operate projection equipment;
by some member of the clerical staff who should service mate-
rials ; and by teachers having hobbies in some specific branches
of visual education, such as collecting pictures or specimens,
making puppet shows, supervising school museums, and the like.
A clerical staff made up of members of the high-school com-
mercial department may aid the director in various office routine
duties. There should also be messenger service between the
various schools and the visual-education center.

The headquarters for the visual-aids department should be
located in a room set aside for the purpose in a central school
building. The room should be suitably equipped to serve as the
(a) meeting place for the visual-education committee, (b) office
for the clerical force, (c) library for visual-education magazines,
catalogs, and the like, (d) repository for department records,
(e) repository for such visual materials and projection equip-
ment as may be held by the department for distribution, (f)
workshop for making or repairing materials, (g) projection
room for previewing, (h) repository for school museum and art
gallery.

Smaller centers should be developed in each building under
the immediate supervision of the committee representative, and
should contain: (1) raw materials related to the work of the
individual school; (2) projection equipment held by the school;

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 41

(3) copies of slide and film records, catalogs, and the like;

(4) such facilities as will fit them as meeting places for the
departmental representatives in planning their use of visual
materials; and (5) projection facilities for previewing.

Preliminary activities of the department, These include:
(1) acquainting the school administrator with the department's
program, (2) acquainting the visual education committee with
its duties, (3) acquainting the teacher with department facilities,
and (4) organizing and classifying all visual materials.

After the official creation of the visual education department,
the superintendent may call a principals' meeting in which he
will explain his reasons for establishing the new organization
and request their cooperation. The director then describes in
detail the functioning of his department, its value to principals
and teachers, and ways in which principals may assist in
carrying on the work. He must impress the principals with the
fact that his is a service organization, set up primarily to assist
both teachers and principals in carrying on the work of their
schools in so far as it is concerned with visual materials.

The principals will subsequently select those teachers to
serve on the visual-education committee. These will include
persons whose interest, initiative, and willingness to cooperate
will assure the successful execution of the project. The com-
mittee will confer with the director in a series of meetings in
which he will explain the entire program. Each will be made
acquainted with his duties and will take steps to carry out the
details allotted to him.

The committee representatives or the director will then meet
with the teachers in their regular monthly teachers' meetings,
and "sell" the idea to them, describing how the department
hopes to assist them in their work and explaining the routines
involved in selecting, ordering, and reporting on materials used.
In so far as is possible at the time, he shall acquaint the teachers
with the available materials on hand and inform them as to
the quantity and quality of materials procurable from outside
sources. The director will subsequently meet with smaller
groups in their department meetings and aid them in planning
the use of materials and correlating them with their syllabi or
course of study.

42 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

A survey should be made of all visual-auditory aids now in
the possession of the teachers or schools. The materials should
be classified according to (a) type of visual aid, (b) condition,
(c) value or quality, and (d) usability in specific grades or
subjects. Based on the results of this survey, catalogs should
be compiled for the elementary grades, junior high and senior
high schools, listing the worth-while materials according to type
and subject. These classifications should be made by the
visual-education committee or based on the judgment of previous
users.

In cases where an individual teacher has made a collection
of visual aids as a private enterprise, such a collection should
be left in her possession or stored in the visual-education center,
if it is desired. It is desirable to encourage individual initi-
ative in the collecting or making of visual aids, and their ready
availability will contribute much to their usefulness. The
teacher, however, should be willing to cooperate with the de-
partment. The name of the teacher and school responsible for
such items will be indicated in the catalog to facilitate scheduling
and handling. Items of a general nature or of a type infre-
quently used should be made available for general distribution
and may be stored in the visual-aid center.

Thornton, D. C. "Why a Department of Visual Education?"
Nebraska Educational Journal. 16:381. November 1936.

The purpose of having a supervisor of visual education is the
same as the purpose of having a supervisor for any other de-
partment : to make easier the learning process through improve-
ment of the teaching procedures. Perhaps in no other depart-
ment is supervision more needed than in a visual-education
department.

Teachers have had little if any training in the use of visual
aids. Few institutions of higher learning offer visual-education
courses. The average teacher is still in the dark so far as
visual aids are concerned, and because of inertia and a very
human willingness to let well enough alone is content to remain
in the dark.

Teachers must learn how to use visual aids and how to
measure their effectiveness. A supervisor can do much to bring
this about. He can devote his time to studying the general and
specific problems of the department; carry on research work

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 43

to measure effectiveness; organize materials; try out procedures
and techniques; keep informed as to the subject matter being
taught ; suggest visual aids for particular units of work ; and see
that effectiveness is attained in the use of visual aids. The
director may aid, further, in planning special programs for the
entire school and may work in harmony with the art department
and other departments throughout the system in the use of
visual aids.

There must be a central source of visual materials to care
for many and varied needs. Arrangements for renting still
films, slides, and moving-picture films are made by the central
office. The director must meet with teacher groups to plan a
visual-aids program. If the school owns films and slides, these
must be stored, filed, mended, and checked. Visual aids, as well
as the syllabi or teachers' aids that accompany them, must be
cataloged. Projectionists must be trained. Pictures should
be evaluated and these evaluations filed so that the poor pictures
will not be reordered.

Enlow, E. R. (Atlanta, Georgia) "Some Tentative Stand-
ards for City Visual Education Programs." Educational
Screen. 10:167-9. June 1931. The report of a special com-
mittee of the National Academy of Visual Instruction, of
which the writer was the chairman.

The problems considered by the special committee of the
National Academy of Visual Instruction were: (1) What is the
cost of an adequate visual-education program? (2) Which visual
aids should be permanently placed in schools? (3) What is the
desired size of staff and what positions would be needed?

Conclusions. (Based on nine completely filled questionnaires
answered by city directors) :

1. The average cost per pupil is 60c per year, with a range
of from 30c to 90c.

2. Visual aids should include stereographs, specimens, prints,
film slides, motion pictures, exhibits.

3. Visual materials must be classified according to the
extent to which it is thought best to circulate them, or locate
them permanently in each school.

4. The salaries should be about 50 per cent of the budget,
with a range of from 40 per cent to 65 per cent. But there
should be a gradual increase of staff annually, so that at the

44 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

end of a five-year period, the maximum number of people will
be employed. The largest part of the budget at the beginning
is needed for purchase of equipment, but after the five-year
period much of that allotment may be used for a larger staff.
Suggested staff positions are as follows :

Director Film Custodian

Assistant Director Projectionist

Supervisor Photographer

Secrecy

Clerk Mechanic

Slide Custodian Truck Driver

Reitze, Arnold W. "A Suggested Plan for a City Department

of Visual Aids." Educational Screen. 10:261-2. November

1931."

The plan is based on data from more than 150 school sys-
tems. In a large department, it is to be used as a guide, not a
final set-up. It required a period of years to formulate the
plan. The work of organizing a visual-aids department is
gradual.

The plan is applicable to a city of 350,000 population, in
which there are 50,000 pupils and forty schools: elementary to
senior high, and special schools. The size of the staff is based
on EnlOw's "Standards."

Organization of a visual-aids department. The general aim
of a visual-aids department should be to cooperate with all
teachers and departments by supplying proper visual aids when
needed.

A visual-aids center should be established for the purpose
of distributing visual aids, trying out and examining aids and
equipment, and for the making and repair of visual aids. Its
location should be central and in a building no longer used for
teaching. There should be space for a director's office, a general
office and file reference room, a conference and demonstration
room, a picture-, print-, and chart-file room, a film- and slide-file

"This is the outline of a plan used as the subject of a thesis at New York
University: "Organization, Functions and Administration of a City Visual Aids
Department." Educational Screen. January-March 1932.

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 45

room, a receiving, shipping, and repair room, a room for photo-
graphic material.

The types of aids circulated may include 16-mm. motion-
picture film ; glass lantern slides ; film slides and still films ;
mounted charts, pictures, and prints; and exhibits. It is sug-
gested that trucks be used for the distribution of aids and
that the city be divided into five school districts, with one day
reserved for each school.

Equipment under consideration for purchase may be studied
and tried out in the visual-aid center, in test schools, or sub-
mitted to a committee of teachers and supervisors. The loan
period for equipment should be one week.

The printed materials needed are loose-leaf catalogs, hand-
books on the use of aids and equipment, suggested lesson plans,
and forms for requisitioning, booking, shortage notification,
exhibition report, slide check, and so on.

The minimum equipment suggested for junior and senior
high schools is as follows : booth with standard projector, two
16-mm. projectors, six lantern-slide projectors, two opaque pro-
jectors, two film-slide projectors, six portable class screens, one
standard auditorium screen; for elementary schools: one or two
16-mm. projectors, one opaque projector, four to six lantern-
slide projectors, film-slide projector, four to six portable class
screens, one auditorium screen.

It is suggested that aids be arranged in sets directly related
to subject and grade with a maximum of twenty-five pieces to a
set. These aids should be filed by subject, and by subject and
grade.

Functions of a visual-aids department. The primary func-
tion of a visual-aids department is to supply any teacher from
kindergarten to high school with the proper visual aids when
most needed.

The specific functions of a visual-aids department are many.
The department should train teachers in proper methods of
using aids and equipment. It is responsible for acquiring new
aids by printing, purchase, renting, or through the courtesy
of the manufacturer. It should standardize and select aids and
equipment. This may be done by study at the visual-aids center,
or by committee, or through test schools. The department is
also responsible for the care and repair of equipment, though

46 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

schools should be responsible for damages. It also relates visual
aids to the course of study. This problem may be studied by
committees, and the procedure then tried out in test schools.
The department should, further, establish a photographic section
to duplicate any material and to prepare photographic material
for teaching aids and publicity. Publicity may be secured
through school activities with parents and pupils, through civic
organizations, and so on.

The supervision of the department should be general, and
cooperation with all school departments, such as art, domestic
science, guidance, health, sewing, music, and so on, is essential.

Administration of a visual-aids department. The visual-
aids department should be directly responsible to the superin-
tendent of schools. Its rules and regulations should be general
enough to meet all situations. Rules for borrowing aids should
be simple and brief.

The personnel of the department may be as follows:

Director. Chief duties : general organization and ad-
ministration ; study, evaluation, and selection of visual aids;
demonstration and supervision of aids.

Secretary. Duties: correspondence, telephoning, mimeo-
graphing, reports, and so on.

Booking Clerk. Duties : to gather and requisition visual
aids, send to delivery clerk, keep records.

Shipping Clerk. Duties: to gather aids, prepare orders
for chauffeur, check incoming material and its return.

Projectionist (films only). Duties: repair, training others,
inspection.

Repair Man. Duties : repair of all aids except films.

Photographer. Duties : to make up all slides, and so on.

Chauffeur. Duties : to deliver and collect material.

Crakes, C. R. (Principal, Moline High School, Moline,
Illinois) ''Organizing and Administering a Visual Instruc-
tion Program." School Executives Magazine. 52:11. Sep-
tember 1932.

The plan which follows was devised for a city of 30,000 to
50,000 population. There are two junior high schools and one
senior high school.

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 47

Personnel. (1) A part-time director. (If possible, a full-
time director who can conduct the necessary research work.)
The qualifications of the director should include university
training in educational psychology, ability to conduct constructive
research, some knowledge of the mechanics of photography and
electricity. [A list of fourteen duties of a director is quoted
from A. V. Dorris, Visual Instruction in the Public Schools.]
(2) A full-time clerk.

[Cost of equipment. The cost is given for practically every-
thing that a department of visual instruction might need. The
list includes the price of a motion-picture projector, as well as
paste, twine, and so forth.]

The minimum investment for materials is approximately
$1500. At least $1300 of this can be used over an eight- or
ten-year period. Yearly rental and transportation costs amount
to $1200, and there is $400 additional expense per year for the
purchase of films, slides, and picturols. In five years there
should be a sufficient library to warrant reduction in the cost
of rental and transportation.

An annual outlay of $3600 for 3600 pupils is at the rate of
$1 per pupil per year. The improvement in learning and in
initiative should warrant this expenditure.

Distribution of materials. The plan for the distribution of
materials to teachers calls for a card index system based on the
requisitions made by teachers at the beginning of the term.
Notice is sent to teachers well in advance of the arrival of
material. A report from the teacher is required to determine
whether or not the material will be used again and for what
purpose. A synopsis of the lesson unit of each film or set of
slides is made by the director, who previews all films. The
projectors are operated by pupils. [See Abstract p. 70]

Emery, James N. (District Principal, Pawtucket, R.I.)
"Visual Instruction in a Small City System." Educational
Screen. 4:391-4. September 1925.

Visual education in a small-city system is usually a growth
w r hich comes from within, through the efforts of some individual
or group. According to Hollis's study, in practically no city
under 75,000 population is there a separate department of visual
education. Yet such work is going on, perhaps unsystematically.

48 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

The following set-up could be used in a city of 70,000. There
may be one senior high school, two junior high schools, eight
elementary schools with an auditorium, fourteen elementary
schools without an auditorium. Most work would, therefore,
be done with charts, still pictures, maps, and so forth. 18

Each of the junior and senior high schools would be equipped
with a 35-mm. projector and a balopticon. A portable stereopti-
con would be placed in each elementary-school building. In the
superintendent's office the following equipment should be stored
and made available to schools according to a regular schedule:
Four to six stereopticons ; two portable 35-mm. projectors; four
Brayco or S.V.E. Picturol projectors; two or three Keystone
slide sets of 600; 3000 other slides (selected to correlate with
the course of study); a library of picturol films; motion pic-
tures rented from state universities, the Y.M.C.A., and U.S.
Bureau of Mines,, Dept. of Agriculture, and so forth. The slide
services offered by the University of Wisconsin and the De-
partment of Education of New York State are outstanding.

The money for visual education might come from the budget
or from the parent-teacher organization. The department of
visual education would in time be a normal part of the admin-
istrative system, just as are the departments of music, health,
and so forth. At the beginning the director may be a prin-
cipal or a special teacher.

Campbell, Laurence R. "The Five Year Program." Educa-
tional Screen. 9:292, 307-8. December 1930.

A "visual-education" program does not consist merely of
occasional showings of slides or films in an assembly program.
It should include a modern curriculum made up of teaching
units and activities. The course of study should list specific
films, slides, excursions, charts, and other visual aids, and make
them an integral part of the course of study.

The administrator may aim for a two-, three-, four-, or five-
year program of visual education, at the end of which the
teachers will be well-trained and expenditures for equipment
made. A five-year program of visual education might begin
with the requirement that all teachers receive adequate training
within the five years so that the program will be carried out
most effectively.

18 The list of equipment needed, it should be noted, has been modified con-
siderably in the ten years since the article was written.

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 49

A good beginning might be made with an intelligent use of
school excursions, still pictures, specimens, and models, all of
which are comparatively inexpensive.

Projection equipment should be purchased after a careful
study has been made of the particular value of each item. Such
equipment includes projectors for showing slides, still films,
motion pictures, and opaque pictures.

Knowlton, D. C. "Problems in the Administration of Visual
Instruction." Visual Instruction News. 5 :7-8. September
1931.

Administrative methods must be judged by educational out-
comes. One picture adequately introduced and intensively taught
may serve the teacher's purpose better than a whole series.
There is danger that the viewing of films may be very much
like the experience of a party of tourists trailing an overzealous
guide through a European art gallery.

The writer's recent experiments at Yale exploded the theory
that an extensive use of such materials was of greater value
than an intensive, cumulative use. A less ambitious program
one making use of flat pictures, stereographs, and slides may
contribute more to real progress than the machinelike regularity
with which certain forms of equipment circulate in some cities.

Angell, Herbert E. "Teaching Films." Educational Screen.
8:201, 218. September 1929.

Though motion pictures have always been said to be an
effective aid in teaching, there are many reasons why they have
not been introduced extensively in the schools.

Producers, for example, cannot profitably present instruc-
tional films fitted to a course of study. Films for school use
must be specially edited. Industrial films, though made and
distributed free, include too much advertising and are not
fitted to courses of study. They cannot be referred to as
teaching films. Films made especially for school use, however,
are expensive and beyond the reach of most schools. Schools
that use free films do not use discrimination.

Films definitely stimulate interest and encourage textbook
study. Under ideal conditions there should be (1) a library
of films in every school with a teacher's manual for each film,
(2) projection equipment in each classroom.

50 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

A practical solution of the problem of cost that is being
tried out in several cities is the establishment of a central library
of films in the office of the board of education, with one room
in each school equipped for projection. It seems impossible,
however, to evolve a satisfactory renting system.

Recommended for classroom projection are: a quick and
easy method of excluding light, a 16-mm. projector (easy to
operate), a beaded screen (30 by 40 inches). The projector
should be placed about eighteen feet away from the screen.

Excellent films are now available on nature, geography,
hygiene, and science, and films on other subjects are in produc-
tion.

As soon as a solution is found to the high cost and scarcity
of subjects in instructional films, a new field will be opened.

Horning, S. D. (Pasadena, Calif.) "Programming- in Visual
Education." Educational Screen. 11:203. September 1932.

For an efficient distribution of visual-aid materials there
should be a central department of visual education in the school
system. The teaching corps should be trained and experienced
in the use of visual aids. A chairman of visual instruction in
each school should keep informed on all sources of materials,
should select the best materials, and order for other teachers in
the school. This will obviate duplication and insure prompt
delivery. Such duties as research studies, correspondence, and
servicing of equipment should belong to the director of the
central bureau and not to the school chairman. The course of
study should, as far as possible, make reference to specific
materials and how they are to be used within a unit.

Whitcomb, Grace Slater. Formerly Special Supervisor, Spo-
kane, Washington, Schools) "Who Shall Supervise Visual
Instruction?" Visual Instruction News. 5:11-12. November
1931. A controversial discussion designed to stimulate
thought among educators.

Various practices are current in the supervision and organ-
ization of visual aids.

The teacher may be left to her own devices. This plan is
excellent when the teacher spends much time in research and
preparation. It is too time-consuming, however, for the average
overworked teacher.

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 51

The visual aids may be supervised by one teacher in the
building. This usually places too much responsibility on one
person and often leads to indifference on the part of other
teachers, or to a neglect of visual aids by the person in charge.

The principal may make a plan for distributing the aids at
stated times and for checking up on materials used and time
spent. Under this plan, teachers who want materials do not
receive them because they are scheduled for another room. One
advantage of this plan is that the students of teachers who
would otherwise be unlikely to use visual aids are benefited.

A visual-education director may be appointed for the whole
school system, who will (a) demonstrate techniques, (b) dis-
tribute lesson plans, and (c) arrange for teacher-demonstrated
lessons, followed by discussion. Unfortunately, some directors
spend their time in purchasing and selecting materials rather
than in helping in their practical application.

The state bureau of visual instruction may be utilized. This
system is good for schools that cannot afford to buy equipment.
It requires careful planning far in advance and makes no pro-
vision for unexpected activities when materials will be needed
before or after the scheduled time.

No one plan has as yet been acknowledged as the best. The
author raises the question but attempts no solution or recom-
mendations.

B. Some Experiences in Administering a City System

The intensive survey made for the 1934 Elementary Prin-
cipal's Yearbook gives us a good picture of the status and
needs of visual aids in representative elementary schools
throughout the country. The data presented are based on
reports from 366 principals of schools in cities ranging in
population from 2,500 to over 100,000. The chief findings
are recounted here.

National Education Association, Research Division. "A Sur-
vey of the Use of Teaching Aids." National Elementary
Principal. 13:150-9. June 1934.

This study is based on a questionnaire sent to 5,000 members
of the National Education Association. Replies were received

52 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

from 7 per cent of these and represent mainly cities of over
100,000 population, although 45 per cent of the replies came
from cities of 2,500 to 100,000. (See Table 1 Size of City
and School Enrollment.)

Table 2 shows schools in which aids were used systematically.
It may be noted from this table that maps are the teaching aids
most often reported, but that other devices frequently used are
globes, phonograph records, pictures, charts, posters, and ex-
hibits.

Some aids vary according to the size of the school. For
example, slides are eighth in frequency of mention in small
schools, but second in schools of large enrollment. This prob-
ably means that larger schools are better equipped for projection.
Smaller schools, however, use mounted and unmounted pictures
more frequently.

Table 2 reveals also that silent films were used by 52 per cent
of the schools, and sound films by 3 per cent. Here, too, the
larger schools were most progressive. Again radio was used by
40 per cent of the small schools, and by 61 per cent of the large
units.

Books, printing, stereoscopes, and gardens were not re-
quested in the questionnaire and cannot be tabulated.

Table 3 shows those teaching aids that are particularly inter-
esting to principals. Slides were preferred by over 50 per cent
of the principals, mounted and unmounted pictures by
33 per cent, while about one in four was especially interested
in exhibits, maps, and silent films.

Principals in larger schools are more likely to be interested
in museums, silent films, and slides than are small-school execu-
tives. Yet principals of small schools are apt to have a special
interest in exhibits, maps, pictures, radio, and charts. The crux
of this difference lies probably in the need for an auditorium
and equipment for projection materials.

Only about one in ten had a special interest in museums,
phonograph records, or posters.

Table 4 shows which aids are supplied as a part of the
regular equipment of the school system. Maps and globes are
supplied by 80 per cent or more of the schools, slides and
phonograph records by almost 50 per cent, while about one in
four received allotments of silent films and charts.

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 53

Silent and sound films, slides, and radios are distributed as
a regular feature by large school systems oftener than by small
systems. Small schools frequently receive phonograph records
and school museums from their administrative departments.

Table 5 shows which aids are purchased through teachers
and which through parents and other unofficial sources. Almost
50 per cent of the principals receive pictures through unofficial
sources, one in three receive phonograph records, radios, and
exhibits in this way, and about one- fourth receive aquariums,
slides, and posters.

Relatively more of the large schools reported outside aid.
This is because of the greater likelihood of their having a
parent-teacher association, or of their giving profitable entertain-
ments, or because their teachers receive higher salaries.

Table 6 summarizes the aids that are made or obtained by
pupils. Fifty-one per cent of the schools reported that pupils
made or obtained posters. Exhibits were next in frequency
(39.3 per cent), and charts third. About one in ten principals
reported that pupils could make or obtain school museums,
slides, maps, and aquariums. School size is not a determining
factor in this tabulation.

Table 7 lists all the agencies that might possibly provide
teaching aids. Out of 366 schools, 245 reported obtaining pic-
tures from outside agencies. Public libraries supplied 180 (73.5
per cent). Exhibits were received from outside sources by 154
principals. Seventy-three, or 47.4 per cent came from local
museums, while a few reported business firms as their source.
Public libraries supplied slides to 142 schools, and, in many
cases, books and films.

One hundred and ninety-five principals did not list the aids
that they said they did get from outside agencies.

Table 8 depicts the means by which schools keep abreast
of modern visual aids. Professional reports and bulletins were
read by 57 per cent. About one-third of the principals either
visited teachers, or had teachers keep informed, or had a com-
mittee of teachers report to the entire faculty. In 51 per cent
of the cases the principal himself assumed this responsibility.
Almost 4 per cent made no special effort to keep informed.

54 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

In larger schools, bulletins and reports were most used,
but in smaller school units, each teacher was responsible for
new developments.

Table 9 shows to what extent aids are incorporated into the
course of study. Almost 92 per cent of the principals said that
this was done, while 7 per cent reported no such coordination.
Large schools again were most active, probably because they
had printed courses of studies.

Following is the report of another survey, less extensive
in its scope, but very suggestive. This study was the subject
of a master's thesis and presents the status of visual aids and
equipment in the secondary schools of Ohio. Other find-
ings and recommendations of this study are found elsewhere
in the compilation. [See Abstract p. 183]

Bard, C. L. (Principal, Liberty Center High School, Liberty
Center, Ohio) "A Study of the Administration of Projector
Apparatus in the Secondary Schools of Ohio." Unpublished
master's thesis, Ohio State University, 1931.

Administration in this thesis is denned as the way in which
the administrator, or school head, chooses projection equipment
and adapts its use to educational purposes in the high school.
This involves the solution of the following problems : ( 1 ) choos-
ing projector apparatus that will best fit the high-school needs;
(2) the housing of projector apparatus; (3) the responsibility
for ordering projector apparatus and the preferred method of
film distribution; (4) financing the projector program; (5) the
presentation of projected pictures to the pupils; and (6) the
sources of films.

A questionnaire was prepared with the assistance of Mr.
Aughinbaugh, Director of Visual Education in Ohio, and Dr.
A. O. Heck. From a list of 940 high schools, questionnaires
were sent to 450. Answers were received from 215 schools,
giving a fair cross section of the secondary schools of Ohio.

Projector apparatus in Ohio secondary schools. Thirty-five-
millimeter projectors are owned by sixteen city high schools,
eleven exempted village high schools, and fifty-seven county high
schools. Some own two or even three. Forty-six schools stated

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 55

they did not own such equipment, and fifty- four failed to answer
the question. A small number rent these machines. Thirty-five-
millimeter films are owned by but five of the schools reporting.
Slide attachments were owned by sixty-three schools. Sixteen-
millimeter projectors were owned by eighteen schools and rented
by three more; 16-mm. films were owned by eight schools. Two
high schools (in county systems) own sound-film equipment.
Film-strip projectors are owned by twenty- four schools; opaque
projectors by twenty-one schools; microprojector attachments
by seventeen schools; stereopticon lanterns by sixty-five schools;
lantern slides by eighty-nine schools. Microscopic slides are
owned by several schools.

Housing of projector apparatus. More projectors are housed
in the assemblies than in any other room. This is due to the
fact that the assembly is more accessible than any other room,
has a larger capacity, and is usually equipped with a permanent
fireproof booth. Many are housed in classrooms where they
are used. Films, in those few schools owning them, are housed
in the office or in the projection booth.

Ordering projector apparatus. The majority of the second-
ary schools of Ohio order their projector apparatus individually.
This is the most convenient method, but is it the most economical?
In the city high schools the principal is by far the one most often
responsible for ordering materials, while the visual-education
supervisor ranks second. County high schools and exempted
village schools do not mention the visual-education supervisor
often. In such schools the superintendent is the one most often
responsible, while the principal ranks second. In all three types
the committee of teachers ranks third in responsibility, except in
the city high schools where superintendents are tied for third
rank. Many of the high schools use the circuit plan for purchas-
ing and borrowing materials. In this way one person or a
committee is responsible for ordering.

Methods of film distribution. In answer to the question
regarding the kind of film distribution preferred, forty-seven
high schools preferred having individual school collections, fifty-
one schools favored State-owned collections, forty preferred a
county system of distribution, and only one city high school
preferred the company-owned prints, slides, and films.

56 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

In 1930, Mr. Aughinbaugh asked the county superintendents
of Ohio if they would favor a State collection of prints, slides,
and films for distribution to the schools. Over 90 per cent were
in favor of such a collection.

Financing the projector program. Some thirty-nine high
schools reported spending fifty dollars or less for apparatus and
rentals, and twenty-three reported spending more than that on
apparatus alone and eighty-six on rentals alone. These figures
are high or low depending upon the size of the school, the size
of the annual budget, and so on. Of the 215 schools reporting,
117 received their money from the school board. Other sources
of money were the parent-teacher association, pupil admission,
admission to the general public, pupil donations, general school
fund, athletic association, State aid, and a women's club.

Presentation of films (reviewed in section on Techniques
p. 183)

Sources of slides and films and approximate costs. The
source most used is V. M. Riegel; then come National Cash
Register Company, the United States Government, General
Electric, International Harvester, Ohio State University (Yale
Chronicles), Pathe, and others. More high schools spend less
than fifty dollars per source than those who spend more than
fifty dollars per source.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Projectors. For high schools with enough money, the best
and latest equipment is recommended. The auditorium should
be equipped with sound equipment, there should be enough still
projectors for use in all classes, the science laboratories should
be equipped with slide projectors and microprojectors, and
all rooms should be suitably equipped for projection. Any high
school can afford a motion-picture projector, a film-strip pro-
jector, and a microprojector attachment. Projector apparatus
should be well housed and cared for.

Films. It is not necessary, and usually not practical, for
an individual high school to own its own films. A small collec-
tion of special films (purchased cooperatively by a few high

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 57

schools), and a large State collection would be the ideal situation.
Films should be carefully housed and cared for usually by an
extension of the high-school library.

Ordering equipment. Some capable person, usually the
principal or an assistant, should be responsible for the ordering
of all equipment. Teachers and pupils, under the instructor's
guidance, should choose films, slides, and the like, to be used.
Where a circuit plan is used, a committee of teachers might be
delegated to select the materials.

Financing the program. The high-school budget should be
so arranged that a certain amount of money will be allowed for
projector apparatus. High schools should not compete with
local theaters, neither should students be expected to finance
this part of the school program. The high-school administrator
must convince the school board members of the value of the
use of projector apparatus in teaching.

Presentation of films (see section on Techniques, p. 183).

Sources for obtaining films. It is not a question of where
you obtain your films, but what films do you obtain? Are they
educational? Will they help teach the children the things they
should know? Are they adequate? The best plan would be
for the State to have a collection of educational films and slides
for distribution among the high schools of Ohio, these to be
supplemented by films from other sources.

The study by Dunn and Schneider is by no means com-
plete. It gives, however, a picture of current practice in
representative cities. It has been briefly summarized below.

Dunn, Fannie W. and Schneider, Etta. "Practices in City
Administration of Visual Education." Educational Screen.
15:269-70, 301-3. November, December 1936.

Reports from 81 cities and towns in the United States re-
garding their work in visual education reveal many points of
similarity among cities, and some indications of individual
initiative which are worth repeating for the use of administrators
and teachers in other situations.

58 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

The person in charge of visual aids ranges from an individual
teacher, to a supervisor or director of visual education. In
some cases the director of the educational museum, the city
librarian, directors of museums, and the like assume responsibility
for distributing materials to the schools. Other persons reported
as being in charge are elementary or high school principals, the
head of the science department, the head of the art department,
the director of vocational and industrial education, the superin-
tendent of schools and the assistant superintendent of schools.
It is noted, however, that a visual education program is measured
by the extent to which teachers utilize it, and not by the official
ranking of the person in charge.

Among materials usually distributed from a central library
are motion pictures, mounted pictures, museum specimens, maps,
charts, and lantern slides. Filmslides and Japanese prints are
centrally distributed in two cases. Materials for making lantern
slides and photographs are also administered from a central
office in some instances.

These visual materials are located in a variety of places,
namely, the principal's office, the superintendent's office, the city
library, a museum, or a classroom.

In the matter of selection of materials, it was found that
some schools enlist the cooperation of "improvement of instruc-
tion committees," ' 'subject matter committees," or "curriculum
revision committees." Some other practices are related, but the
one in which teachers and supervisors lend most assistance is
judged to be the most beneficial.

Distribution of materials may be made, according to these
reports, by a regular delivery or circuit arrangement, or by a
system of delivery depending upon individual requests from
schools. In some cases a combination of these methods is offered.
The most desirable procedure, it is concluded, is the one which
makes ample provision for the individual teacher with the
expert guidance of a curriculum specialist or a director of visual
education.

Several means of instructing and counselling teachers in the
use of visual aids have been reported : catalogs correlated with
the course of study, handbooks, lesson units, or personal super-
vision.

In a great many cases financial support is secured outside
the regular fiscal budget. Increasingly the cooperative system

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 59

of purchasing and borrowing materials among a group of prin-
cipals is becoming popular.

In conclusion, it is stated that the problems of visual educa-
tion can be met by planning and by proper administration and
supervision. These problems, as indicated in the analysis, are
the need for establishing a clearing house for information,
adequate annual funds, guidance of teachers, and the routine
distribution of materials.

The article describing the status of visual education in
the Chicago schools will indicate the plans being made for
improvement under the direction of Dr. William H. Johnson,
now city superintendent of the Chicago Schools, author of
Fundamentals in Visual Instruction, published in 1927.

The system operating in the Elgin, Illinois schools ap-
pears to be directly concerned with the needs of the classroom
teacher and ways in which the routine of administration can
be minimized.

Kruse, William F. "Visual Education Program of Chicago
Public Schools: An Interview with Dr. William H. John-
son." Educational Screen. 16:84-6. March 1937.

The responsibility of the principal toward visual instruction
is to make available proper materials and equipment, and to
get as many as possible of his teachers to use these facilities
effectively. The superintendent has exactly the same job, but
on a much broader scale. Basically, however, the task is the
same, to provide the materials, to show the teachers how and why
to apply those materials, and to get them to do it.

Responsibility for securing and circulating materials, and for
coordinating them with the course of study cannot be the task of
an individual in a city the size of Chicago. This work is done
by the Department of Visual Instruction, headed by Paul G.
Edwards. Personnel also includes a Supervisor, five clerks,
three film and slide inspectors, and part time artists when the
need arises. The Department has accumulated, and circulates
constantly 150,000 slides, 3,500 reels of 16mm. film to serve the
1000 stereopticons and 400 silent motion picture projectors in the
schools. During the school year 1935-36 the Chicago schools

60 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

used 900,000 slides, and 60,000 reels of 16mm. film. The use of
these materials has increased since that date due to the increased
interest among teachers and principals, and to the increase in
the number of projectors available. The Department distributes
wall charts, and in cooperation with the Field Museum, object-
specimen-models.

Slides are used beginning with kindergarten and lowest
primary grades. Silent films begin to be effective from the fourth
grade on, and sound pictures at present available seem best
fitted for the seventh grade and up, with accent on the higher
levels. The Department owns four sound projectors, three of
which are used at the junior colleges. Six high schools have
purchased their own sound projectors. A library of about 40
reels serves these sound projectors at present.

The basis of any teaching program, whether by visual
methods or others, remains the teacher. The finest film libraries
and projection equipment in the world will be useless unless we
have a body of teachers willing to use them, and trained to do
so effectively. There is usually no lack of willingness once the
teachers have acquired the necessary understandings and skills.

The Chicago Normal College is planning to offer a formal
course in visual education for all new students, and to place
more stress on visual aids in the teaching of other subjects as
the students progress through their general course. Teachers of
the future will have as part of their background a thorough
training in both theory and practice of visual education.

Classroom demonstration lessons are to be provided through
ten school clinics, five in science and the other five in pupil-
activization classroom projects. All will emphasize the important
contributions of visual aids to classroom results. Every teacher
will gain something from these clinics, how much will depend
upon the individual teacher and her principal.

The initiative and self-reliance of principal and teacher are
finally determinative in work of this kind. The visual instruc-
tion department furnishes the facilities, the individual principal
devises ways and means to make best possible use of them.
Where additional equipment was needed, many principals have
used local funds or funds from P.T.A. groups. Some com-
munity showings were used to finance the program, the programs
being made up of good entertainment films available on 16mm.
prints.

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 61

The Department has been developed as an outgrowth of a
"Projection Club" of principals organized in 1895. The size and
scope of service rendered by the Department has grown tre-
mendously since that time. In the last five years, for example,
the slide circulation has doubled, the circulation of 16mm. silent
films has increased six- fold, yet the cost of running the Depart-
ment has been reduced to one-third the peak budget of 1927.

New media are introduced as they appear. The sound film
is being introduced through the junior college, and increasingly
extended to the high school. Further use will depend upon
the demands of the teacher body.

Waggoner, E. C. "The Program of Visual Education in the
Elgin Public Schools." Illinois Teacher. 24:284-5. May
1936.

The Elgin school system enrolls approximately 3,900 ele-
mentary students in eleven grade schools and 1,700 high-school
students in one junior high and one four-year high school. For
six years this system has been developing a visual-education
program.

The aim of the program is to have the visual-aid materials
available to the teacher at the time they are needed in the
learning process. This requires planning for a semester or even
a year in advance.

The success of a film showing depends on the correct prepara-
tion of the students for the picture. A teacher guide should
be included with each film. When there is no such guide the
visual-education director prepares an outline of the subject
matter and sends it to the teacher in advance of the use of
the film.

Sound projectors are rather expensive and it has been diffi-
cult to get boards of education to finance their purchase during
the depression. The sound projector owned by the Elgin school
system was purchased through the efforts of a student science
club composed of thirty boys. The silent projectors used in
the system are purchased by the board of education, which also
finances the yearly programs.

More than one elementary school in Elgin must be serviced
with one projector. A committee of principals aids the visual-
education director in preparing the year's schedule. Junior
and senior boys are used as projectionists in the high school.

62 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

A boy from this group is chosen as assistant in operating pro-
jectors in the elementary schools after his graduation. These
boys have been found to be just as responsible as teachers in
the care and use of this equipment.

The assistant projectionist makes at least one visit a week to
each elementary school. The teacher is notified as to the exact
hour of his arrival. The class which is to see the picture moves
to the projection room with very little disturbance and a class-
room attitude is maintained. The "show" idea has entirely
disappeared.

The teacher is the deciding factor in determining the value
of a motion-picture program. If she has carefully prepared the
pupils for the aid and has a well-planned "follow-up," a good
visual aid will undoubtedly achieve its purpose.

In 1934-35, as part of a study by the Erpi Picture Con-
sultants, the Derry Township schools in Hershey, Pennsyl-
vania, were fitted into a program for using talking motion
pictures. The plan and costs are fully described in the
brochure by Brunstetter. The purpose of the plan was to
"stimulate local initiative in gradually working out a system
for audio-visual instruction, which is completely integrated
with the educational offering." The first effort was to orient
the teaching staff to the new instructional medium, and then
to present goals toward which the school system may work.
This plan makes no provision for visual aids other than
talking pictures. A similar survey was made in Evansville,
Indiana, at about the same time. Both surveys have here
been outlined.

Brunstetter, M. R. The Organization of an Audio-Visual In-
struction Program. Erpi Picture Consultants, Inc. New
York. 1935. 98p. Mimeographed.

The essential elements in this program were conceived to be :
(1) teacher training in the purpose and function of educational
talking pictures and techniques evolved as a result of training
and supervision ; (2) effective use of films when integrated with

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 63

the course of study; (3) growth of the program to include new
techniques and new areas of subject matter ; (4) growth in
community support, through a program of adult education; and
(5) mechanization of routine and skill in handling equipment.

There are three public-school buildings in the Hershey school
system with the following teachers: kindergarten, two; ele-
mentary school, twenty- four; junior high school, eight; high
school and trade school, twenty-two. There are also three
special teachers and supervisors.

The school program suggested for talking pictures was
organized under the following heads : ( 1 ) administrative service ;
(2) educational services: training of teachers, supervision,
integration of sound films with curriculum, selection of sound
films; and (3) mechanical services: delivery, operation, storage,
repair.

Outlined by steps, the program calls for, first, preliminary
training, preferably through a unit course (see Pennsylvania
State course of study for visual education, or the Erpi
course) ; second, a period of experimentation and analysis which
might be carried on in science classes in the elementary, junior,
and senior high schools, the lesson units being organized by a
science committee which would give demonstration lessons before
other teachers; and third, a period of expansion. The latter
steps include teacher training, integration of sound films with
courses of study, 19 selection of talking pictures from among
those available, development of new areas of instruction, provi-
sion of films and equipment, and the administration of distri-
bution.

New areas of instruction mentioned are: (1) adult-educa-
tion courses in art, literature, civics, psychology; (2) religious
instruction; (3) use in assembly programs; (4) courses in
photoplay appreciation in high schools.

Brunstetter, M. R. "A Program for the Utilization of Audio-
Visual Teaching Aids." Erpi Picture Consultants, Inc. New
York. 1935. Mimeographed.

A plan proposed for the Evansville Public Schools, Evansville,
Indiana.

19 Brodshaug, Melvin D. "Integration of Sound Films with Science Courses
of Study." (In Program for Utilization of Audio-Visual Teaching Aids for Evans-
ville, Ind. p 133-82)

64 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Organisation of the Evansville Public Schools. The popula-
tion of Evansville is 102,000, with a student enrollment of 16,000
in the four high schools and seventeen elementary schools. The
parochial schools have over 4,000 students. Evansville College,
a denominational institution which includes a department of
education, enrolls about 300 students. The administrative staff
of the Evansville schools includes a superintendent of schools;
a business manager with a staff; an assistant superintendent of
elementary schools in charge of instruction in grades five to
eight ; a supervisor of instruction for kindergarten and grades
one to four; a director of research in charge of secondary edu-
cation; supervisors of special subjects, such as music, art, home
economics, and industrial arts. The industrial-arts supervisor
is also director of night schools. A director of health and physical
education, with a staff, and the supervisor of physical education
administer the health program. In all the elementary schools
except three, two elementary-school buildings are assigned to
one principal.

Local educational offering. There are 4,103 high-school
pupils enrolled with 159 teachers, and 11,033 elementary-school
pupils enrolled with 338 teachers. The work of grades six,
seven, and eight in the elementary schools is operating under
a modified platoon plan for the upper elementary grades. This
plan involves auditorium activities in which special attention
is given to music appreciation and expression. An intensive
program of curriculum revision has recently been developed.
In the elementary schools, the assistant superintendent organized
a subject-matter committee for each grade. The chairmen of
these committees met as a group to integrate the whole ele-
mentary-school program. The same organization prevailed for
the primary grades, under the immediate direction of the
primary-school supervisor, who in turn conferred with the
assistant superintendent. In the high schools the director of
research and secondary education, in collaboration with the high-
school principals, organized a social-studies key committee.
This general committee integrated the work of social-studies
subject-production committees, in which all social-studies teachers
were included.

Extracurricular activities. There are over one hundred clubs
in four high schools. Activities range from languages to air-

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 65

craft; practically every hobby interest is represented. In the
elementary schools, bands and orchestras occupy a prominent
place in the music program. Many of the schools have uniformed
bands.

Community contacts. There is an active parent-teacher asso-
ciation in each school. An emergency education program under
the Public Works Administration has shown a significant need
for a broad program of adult education. This work was
organized under the direction of the supervisor of industrial arts.
The Museum of Fine Arts and History, through its exhibits,
has provided contacts with local history and with foreign coun-
tries. The industrial plants of the city have been a source of
first-hand experience for students, through excursions which
have been planned in connection with school projects.

Use of instructional aids prior to this survey. The responsi-
bility for using visual aids was tacitly delegated to the school
principals, who were unable to accomplish much because of the
lack of budgetary support. Available equipment included seven
16-mm. projectors, six 35-mm. silent projectors, no 16-mm.
sound projectors, one 35-mm. sound projector, seven reels of
film, twenty screens, eighteen stereopticon lanterns, six opaque
projectors, three film-slide projectors, 189 film strips, 4,996 slides,
and nineteen radio-phonographs (in practically all schools).

Unless special building provisions are made for placing pro-
jectors in operation readily, the teachers find it too difficult to use
the materials. There should be electrical outlets conveniently
placed and provisions for darkening all rooms to be used for pro-
jection. Few schools in Evansville were adequately equipped.
The high schools initiated a program of visual instruction in 1934.
They appointed a visual-education committee in one school to
plan the development of such a program in that school. There
was practically no centralization of equipment or materials. As
for training teachers in the use of instructional aids, there was
no such provision. The excellent work with visual aids which
was done was apparently the result of the teachers' own initiative.
There was no attempt to correlate visual aids with courses of
study. The survey here described was conducted with the
cooperation of the visual-education committee, consisting of five
elementary-school principals.

66 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

The Program of Audio-Visual Instruction

Preliminary preparations. These include, first of all, train-
ing teachers in the effective use of audio-visual aids through a
training course organized for principals, supervisors, and selected
teachers from each school. At the outset, this will take the form
of a short unit course. Concurrent with this course, a series of
experimental film units should be initiated in each building, so
that as members of the group come together there will be a
pooling of actual experience. The preliminary training course
should consider rapidly the nature of the various instructional
aids, standards for selection, sources of materials, integration
of these materials into the curriculum, techniques for administer-
ing the program throughout the school system, and teaching
techniques. 20 During the summer, teachers should be encouraged
to take professional training courses in this field.

Audio-visual materials must next be selected and integrated
with the curriculum. As part of the teacher- training program it
is recommended that all the teachers of a school cooperate in
selecting audio-visual materials to integrate with the unit. They
may preview and evaluate films in terms of recognized standards.
Each school should take inventory of materials available in that
school and catalog them in relation to the course of study.

New areas of instruction, such as adult education, photo-
play appreciation, extracurricular activities, and the like, may
be developed, and current curriculum offerings, such as ele-
mentary science, may be enriched. Films, equipment, and pro-
jection facilities should be provided.

Administrative, clerical, and mechanical services can be
rendered by the present staff, since such persons are acquainted
with the needs of the schools. The interest which the present
staff derives from initiating the program will continue even
when the wide extension of the program in the future necessitates
the establishment of a special audio-visual instruction department.
[The distribution of responsibilities for this service is described
on a chart.]

Experimentation and study. This step involves the same
series of procedures as was described under the first step and
should extend over an entire school year.

20 See Section on Teaching Techniques, p. 109ff.

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 67

Extension of the audio-visual instruction program. Teacher
training, selection and integration of materials, new areas of
instruction, facilities for securing and projecting materials, and
administrative assistance must all be considered in connection
with extending the program.

In the final period, there should be ample provision for
maintaining the services initiated in the other steps.

The most recent reports of the activities of city depart-
ments throughout the United States are contained in the
1937 issue of the Visual Review, published by the Society for
Visual Education, Chicago, 111. The reader is recommended
to examine this bulletin for timely information regarding
city administration.

Other reports on the work of city administrators have
here been summarized and arranged in inverse chronological
order, because the most recent is likely to be of greatest value.

Gregory, W. M. (Director, Educational Museum, Cleveland,
Ohio, Public Schools) "The Services of a Central Depart-
ment." National Elementary Principal. 13:175-84. June
1934.

Progressive education requires that children be provided
with learning tools that impart life experiences with speed and
accuracy. The use of modern learning tools, under the guidance
of the teacher skilled in the technique of handling aids, shortens
and clarifies the learning process.

The value of modern learning tools is pointed out in sum-
maries of research already conducted. (See Chapter X of the
Yearbook.)

Factors which determine the success or failure of learning
aids are (1) correct technique (which teacher-training courses
fail to give), (2) wise selection, either through experimentation,
or by consideration of the principle that each visual aid must
be an essential tool in learning, (3) purposeful organization,
both by a system of filing and distribution, and by correlation
with the curriculum, and (4) educational value, which cannot
be afforded by the text alone.

68 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Some central bureau, either in the museum or in the adminis-
trative building, should collect, organize, distribute, and repair
visual materials. Teachers in collecting materials often resort
to unevaluated free advertising matter.

The Educational Museum in Cleveland, for example, under-
takes to supply pupils and teachers with illustrative materials
that are carefully selected and organized as an effective aid to
actual school work. The Museum endeavors to meet the objec-
tive requirements of each course of study, to obtain the type of
material best suited to bring about the desired results, and to
organize material to be used at the different grade levels.

Pictures, for instance, are arranged in sets and include only
those that are dated, located, authoritative, accurate. They are
printed in 8-by-10-inch size, about twenty-five in each set, a
number suitable for one week's instruction. On the reverse of
each picture is a study guide adapted for each grade with ques-
tions, a game or puzzle, a selected vocabulary, a check-up test,
and an information paragraph.

Lantern-slide units are also arranged in sets of twenty-five
and are accompanied by title sheets which suggest definite class
uses. Many popular sets are loaned to a school for a whole
semester. The study guides are also printed for slides and used
in proper order during the lesson. There are 42,633 slide units
supplied yearly.

Motion pictures and projectors are purchased by the Museum.
The projectors are loaned to schools for a semester and the films
loaned through a fixed schedule organized in advance. Five
thousand films are used per month. The cost of each film
varies from $10 to $20. Servicing is done through the Museum.

The economic aspect of the Cleveland Museum service is of
interest. In 1920-21, 5,556 units circulated; in 1925-26, 17,332;
in 1932-33, 156,045. The average turnover was, therefore, 22
times per unit per year.

In 1925, $23,013 was spent; in 1930, $44,838; in 1932, $15,793
(because of the depression). These figures represent a little
more than half the total budget. The cost per unit (computed
on the basis of the actual number of units circulated and the
total budget) in 1925 was $1.22; in 1930, 41^; in 1932, fy.

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 69

Whittinghill, W. W. (Asst. Director, Dept. of Visual Educa-
tion, Detroit, Michigan, Schools) "Functions of a Central
Visual Education Department." National Elementary Prin-
cipal. 13:185. June 1934.

Although the set-up of a department varies with the size of
the school system, cooperation is the keynote that determines a
department's success or failure.

The duties of the director vary in different schools. He may
have to supervise the proper use of visual-aid libraries throughout
the school system. He may be the science teacher. Or, in
addition to supervising the use of visual aids in the school sys-
tem, he and his staff may make visual aids. Again, he may head
a staff of ten or fifteen people who make and distribute aids but
whose service ends there, with supervisors in each subject
directing their use.

The Department of Visual Education in Detroit directs
eleven definite programs : teacher training, the selection of
visual aids, a film program, a slide program, an exhibit program,
a photographic program, an equipment program, a delivery-
service program, an equipment-service program, a phonograph-
record program, a radio program.

The film program, for example, includes the review, by com-
mittees, of all films. Approved films are bought ; some films
are made by the department ; a film library is stored, serviced,
distributed. [See table for number of films used 1928-33 and the
per cent of change.]

The selection of visual aids is made by a committee. In
science, for example, the committee includes the director of
science, the head of the science department in the school, two sci-
ence teachers, and the city director of visual education. The
committee decides which visual aids are particularly adapted to
the curriculum, previews them, and makes recommendations.
This type of selection when applied to all subjects in the curric-
ulum results in a specialized library of visual aids that is of
value to all teachers. The course of study includes visual aids
to be used and how they may be obtained.

Request blanks for visual aids are filed with the department
one semester in advance, after which the teacher is relieved of
any further responsibility until he starts using the material.

70 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

There are 736 complete units of visual-education equipment in
the Detroit schools. The equipment includes all types of pro-
jection apparatus. The Department services all equipment.

Among the research studies in which the Department co-
operated are:

1. Proper objectives for a broad program of visual edu-
cation.

2. Relative values, in a general program of instruction, of
slides, still films, auditorium films, classroom films, exhibits,
photographs, charts, maps, museum materials.

3. The degree of differentiation that should be made be-
tween visual aids used in the classroom and those used in the
auditorium.

4. The degree to which visual education can be made a
factor in improving local, national, and international relations.

5. Organization of a program of supervision accompanied
by measurements of the use of visual aids.

6. Organization of state and city departments.

7. Exhibit standards.

8. Educational talking pictures.

Teacher training in the proper use of visual aids is in the
hands of the department heads or supervisors, who in turn are
members of the Department of Visual Education and cooperate
with it. Training in the handling of equipment is carried on
by the Department through demonstrations in the various schools.

Lain, Dolph (Director of Visual Education, Moline Public
Schools, Moline, Illinois) "A Visual Education Depart-
ment." Illinois Teacher. 20:7, 34. September 1931.

The Department of Visual Education in Moline was or-
ganized in 1923. Most of its service is conducted in the junior
and senior high schools.

Visual aids include 16-mm. and 35-mm. films and some
slides. Most instructors seem to prefer motion pictures to
slides.

Selection. Films edited only for school use are not abundant,
but the supply is slowly increasing.

A card system for listing educational films is worked out
as follows : A new catalog of films or slides is sent, on arrival,
to the department head or to special teachers. The films or slides
that they recommend are added to the card index. If after a
trial the films are found to have little educational value, the

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 71

card is removed from the file. The list is, therefore, the result
of trial and elimination.

Equipment. Each junior and senior high school has one
room reserved for projection work. The need for moving equip-
ment from room to room is thus eliminated. However, as soon
as teachers become skilled in the use of 16-mm. equipment,
each classroom will be used for projection. This will make it
possible for several teachers to use projection equipment at
one time or for a teacher to show a few slides at one session
without the necessity of moving her class.

There are two 35-mm. and three 16-mm. motion-picture
projectors in the schools, and three stereopticon lanterns.

All the work in visual education below the junior high school
level is done independently in each school.

The operators of equipment are boys in the school who
receive special credit for their work. After September, 1931,
the only films used will be 16-mm.

Sources of films and slides. Films are rented from state
universities, film agencies, and some industrial concerns. Slides
are made or bought.

Haworth, Harry A. (Supervisor of Visual Education, Pasa-
dena, Calif.) "Administration of a Department of Visual
Instruction." Junior-Senior High School Clearing House.
5 :218-22. December 1930.

The functions of the Pasadena Department of Visual Instruc-
tion are as follows: (1) To introduce the visual-instruction
method to teachers and to assist them in the correct and eco-
nomical use of this method. (2) To secure visual aids. (3)
To organize visual aids in a scientific manner corresponding
to the course of study. (4) To circulate these aids among
schools.

[The set-up of this department is very much like that
described by McClusky. (See p. 22) The duties of the director
are especially in line with the suggestions outlined in that
article. ]

System of classification. The Dewey decimal system for
classifying subject matter is used wherever practicable. A
letter preceding the number describes the type of visual aid

72 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

required: P (print), W (wall print), S (stereograph), L (lan-
tern slides), S.F. (still film), Ex. (exhibits), R (roll film or
film slides). Material for primary grades is marked "X."

Thirty-five-millimeter films are arranged according to the
University of California catalog, and 16-mm. films alphabetically
according to title. Details are worked out as the need arises.

Supervision of use made of visual aids. All elementary-
school teachers and all high-school teachers, according to their
department of specialization, meet once each semester. At these
conferences instruction is given in the operation of projection
equipment, suggestions are made for the use of visual aids,
and the new pictures available are exhibited.

Individual conferences are also arranged, and personal visits
to the department are encouraged.

Sigman, James G. (Director of Visual Education, Phila-
delphia, Pa.) "The Organization of a Department of Visual
Education." Junior-Senior High School Clearing House.
5:214-18. December 1930.

The official creation in 1929 of the visual-education depart-
ment in Philadelphia was not the first step in visual education.
Such activities as the distribution of slides were known as far
back as 1905.

Organization of the Philadelphia department. Close coopera-
tion with special departments has been encouraged. Specialists
in subject matter are consulted to insure the best correlation with
the course of study. Busses have been provided by the Board
of Education for the transportation of children to museums;
trucks transport materials to one-fifth of the schools each day.
Materials distributed include: 16-mm. film, 35-mm. film, still
films, film slides, glass slides, stereographs, and historical prints.

Teacher training. Teachers in service and undergraduates
are given special training in visual education. The state director
has sent out a syllabus to the teachers' colleges. A laboratory
of equipment is maintained in the normal school. Frequent
bulletins are sent to teachers. The director personally demon-
strates visual methods in schools.

The personnel of this department consists of a director,
special assistant in instructional field, five clerical assistants (a

ADMINISTRATION FOR A CITY 73

chief assistant, a museum clerical assistant, a glass-slide clerk,
a motion-picture clerk, a still-film clerk), three museum teachers
permanently attached to the Commercial Museum and one
assigned to the Art Museum, and three mechanical assistants
and operators.

Roach, Charles (Director, Visual Education, Los Angeles
Schools) "Visual Instruction Service in a City System:
Abstract." National Education Association Proceedings, 67:
942-3. 1929.

Visual aids, including pictures, home-made charts, stereo-
graphs, and lantern slides, have been used generally since 1913.
In 1920, a motion-picture service was added. The visual-educa-
tion department should not be a subject department but a serv-
ice bureau where teachers, principals, supervisors, and super-
intendents may come for assistance in visual problems.

In the Los Angeles system, the director of the department
is subordinate to one of the eleven assistant school superintend-
ents. There are three assistant directors and two teacher-
assistants, all of whom are professionally trained, certificated,
and hold teachers' credentials. The general administrative duties
are distributed among them. The nonprofessional group con-
sists of the usual clerical staff and six persons in specialized
work, such as photography, art, and research.

The department is divided into several sections, each one
of which is in charge of a head responsible to the director or to
an assistant director. The photographic section prepares photo-
graphs and slides. In addition to a specially trained teacher-
assistant, there are three photographers who work in the field
or in the laboratory, a catalog clerk who prepares explanatory
data to accompany and identify each illustration, and a file clerk
who keeps the negatives, file prints, and card index in shape.
The head of this section is the official photographer for the board
of education.

The assembly section accepts the responsibility for all details
of binding slides, mounting pictures, and labeling, boxing, and
packing material prior to circulation. Repairs and replacements
are made by this section.

The art section tints pictures and slides. The artist designs
special posters or charts that are not otherwise obtainable.

74 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

The editorial and research section checks all printed and
mimeographed data that accompany the illustrative material.

The division meets the teachers most intimately and most
frequently in the circulation section. Everything other than
motion pictures is stored, distributed, and returned by this sec-
tion. The volume of business has increased to such a large
extent that a clerk is now assigned to each grade to handle
materials.

The motion-picture section is kept separate and distinct from
the circulation section.

Recommendations to other directors of visual education :

1. Provide a means whereby teachers may learn methods
of visual presentation before equipment is purchased.

2. If at all possible, establish a photographic section with
the best equipment for making slides and photographic enlarge-
ments.

3. Analyze the film problem carefully. It is better to buy
films than rent them.

4. Provide a delivery service with a definite schedule for
all schools.

5. Tie all work positively and definitely to the course of
study.

II. ADMINISTRATION WITHIN A SCHOOL BUILDING

The administration of visual aids should be systematically
organized for the city as a whole, and with equal emphasis,
within each school. It is important that visual aids be routin-
ized so as to minimize the demands upon the teachers, and
to remove any factor of novelty or entertainment.

Hollinger, as city administrator, in the article summarized
below, offers some worth-while suggestions for a system of
administration within a school building.

Hamilton's suggestions are based on his long experience
in dealing with schools as the representative of a visual aid
producing company.

ADMINISTRATION WITHIN A SCHOOL 75

Hollinger, John A. (Director of Visual Education, Pitts-
burgh, Pa.) "The Administration of Visual Aids in Edu-
cation." American School and University. 5 :210-14. 1932-
33.

For the effective use of visual aids in education, materials
must be made conveniently available for teachers. Visual aids
should not be confined to the assembly or extracurricular pro-
gram but should be made an integral part of the classroom
procedure.

Equipment for classroom use should be permanently located
in the school building and cataloged and indexed so as to make
it easily available. There should be (1) cabinets for slides and
stereographs, (2) library shelves for motion-picture films (buy
only slow-burning acetate film), (3) folders for flat pictures,
(4) cases for specimens, charts, posters, and the like. A compe-
tent person should be in charge of materials and equipment.
The school librarian is best fitted for such work. If there is
no librarian, the principal and an assistant may take charge.

The duties of the director of visual education include (a)
prompt distribution of material, (b) prompt return of material
to proper storage place, (c) recording of material as it leaves
the building and when it is returned, and (d) the appointment
of a licensed operator for projection of 35-mm. film. The
operator may be a teacher whose duties will be to supervise
proper storage of equipment for protection against dust and
theft, to repair breaks in films, to keep all projectors in working
condition, to moisten regularly the humidor containers for films,
and to instruct other teachers how to operate the machines.

Visual aids suitable for general instruction of a scientific,
social historical, artistic, and vocational nature should be stored
in the central office.

Most of the material should be owned by the district and
distributed to the schools. The longer the range of a distribu-
tion system, the less effective and more expensive it is likely
to become. There must be sufficient personnel and equipment
for prompt and efficient service. It is best for schools to
requisition material well in advance.

The space reserved for the visual-education department
should include a general office, with telephones, a projection and
conference room, about 15 by 30 feet, with lighting and darken-
ing facilities, and at least 800 square feet for storage and work-

76 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

room. The department should be equipped with desks for the
director and the hooker, a cabinet for filing reservations, and
files for catalogs, correspondence, and the like. There should
also be a packer's desk, a receiver's desk, a rewinding table,
and a patching outfit for films. Slides may be stored individually
or in sets. Films may be kept in the containers in which they
are shipped.

The minimum equipment as determined by the Pennsylvania
state teachers' colleges, is available through Dr. C. F. Hoban,
director of visual instruction, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.

Each school should have the following projection equipment:
One lantern-slide projector for each floor, one 16-mm. projector
for every twenty classrooms, one 35-mm. projector for the audi-
torium, an outlet for each classroom, equipment for making
slides, and a screen, from 30 by 40 inches to 6 by 8 feet. The
screen can also be made from discarded window shades mounted
on boards, or painted on a wall.

The equipment recommended for the auditorium includes a
projection booth with control of all lights from the booth, a
reverse signal system from stage to booth, a screen, 12 feet wide,
on a rigid frame, and opaque shades for darkening the audi-
torium. A 1000-watt lamp is necessary for lighting, if the
distance from the screen is not more than 70 feet, and a carbon-
arc projector, if the distance is more.

An annual appropriation of $1 per pupil is needed for carry-
ing out properly such a visual-aids program.

Hamilton, W. J. "Administrative Problems in Visual Educa-
tion." Educational Screen. 15:208-10. September 1936.

Those who have been interested in the sale of visual aids
have been quite successful in getting them into the schools.
School administrators have not been so successful in getting
them used. A check of visual aids shows that many of them
are seldom or never used.

The correction of this situation rests with school administra-
tors. The first step in an administrator's procedure for the
systematic use of visual aids is a careful inventory of the visual
aids which the school actually owns. This material should be
carefully evaluated. Much of it may be found to be out of
date or worn out.

ADMINISTRATION WITHIN A SCHOOL 77

An attempt should be made to secure school-wide use of
such facilities as the school possesses. Materials should not be
in the possession of any one room or department, but should
be available for the use of the entire corps of teachers.

Teacher committees will be found useful in the adaptation
of the aids to the courses and the curriculum in general. A
definite time and place should be found for the use of such
aids in the school work. The practice of appointing teachers
to serve on committees for the evaluation and for the introduc-
tion of methods to be employed for the use of visual aids, will
result in an intelligent interest in carrying out the recommenda-
tions made.

The visual aids should be made as convenient for use as
possible. Regular classrooms may be fitted up for projection
purposes and the schedule of classes arranged to accommodate
those classes desiring to use the projector. The projector can
be housed in a cabinet with all connections made and with
screen, sound equipment, and other details carefully tested and
ready for use.

Teachers should be trained in the operation of the projectors.
This will result in an increase in the quality of projection, since
projectors in untrained hands are often poorly used.

Visual aids may be used at various stages in the progress of
a unit of work: for introduction to the unit, for example,
study, discussion, or review. The use will vary according to
the techniques employed and the nature of the subject matter
being presented.

There should be a room in which visual aids may be stored,
loaned for the use of individual teachers, and returned. A
perpetual inventory may thus be kept and materials inspected
and repaired. The larger systems should have a director in
charge who devotes his entire time to visual aids.

In some places, state and county units of distribution have
been developed for films, lantern slides, and so on. Local unit
distribution is usually more satisfactory, making it possible to
get the material on short notice.

School showings of films should be strictly educational,
leaving the entertainment field to the local motion-picture ex-
hibitors. The practice of booking educational films without
regard to the units being studied and showing them to large
groups is not to be recommended. It is better to select only

78 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

those films that are of interest to pupils at a certain grade
level and correlate them with the regular work of the class.

A definite sum of money should be made available each
year, in the regular budget, for visual aids. It is better to add
equipment each year than to make a large sum of money
available periodically for such purchase.

As a refutation of the statement made above regarding
the use of films for large audiences, a number of educators
have published accounts of a technique which they consider
satisfactory in making the motion picture of interest to chil-
dren, and occasionally to adults, assembled in large numbers.

Jones, A. H. (Director of Visual Education, Gary Public
Schools, Ind.) "Visual Education in the Auditorium." Vis-
ual Review. 1930:17.

The visual education department includes three full-time
teachers and two part-time administrators, one the supervisor
of social sciences, and the other the assistant supervisor of art.
The teachers go to all the schools in the city, transporting their
motion picture and stereopticon equipment as they go. The
topics chosen for the auditorium lecture-demonstrations are not
correlated with the course of study, nor are they graded. This
is done in order to provide enrichment of experiences outside
of the regular classroom routine.

The films used in the auditorium are : some industrials, a
health film, "One Scar or Many?" on vaccination, a safety
film, one on the structure and care of the teeth, one on the
food value of milk.

Besides this day school program, the department sponsors
a community night program for every school center in the city.

The rental and purchase of films is provided for by a budget
allowance of $4,000. The per capita cost on this amount is two
and a half cents.

Stuart, Byron D. (Principal, Frand and Franklin Schools,
Westfield, NJ.) "On the Use of Motion Pictures: Seven
Years Experience Summarized." New Jersey Educational
Review. 8:23. March 1935.

The classroom teachers requisition those slides and films
which they will use for the forthcoming year. The principal

ADMINISTRATION WITHIN A SCHOOL 79

consolidates these plans to arrange a full schedule spread out
evenly over the year. The films and slides are shown in the
auditorium before the fourth, fifth, and sixth grade students.

The visual instruction period is looked upon as a genuine
study period. This is emphasized to the pupils, not only directly
by the teacher, but indirectly through follow-up tests and group
discussions which follow the showing. A pupil or several pupils
are given the responsibility of explaining in advance the back-
ground of information necessary better to understand the film.
When slides are shown, a pupil is made responsible for the
thorough explanation of one or more slides. On other occasions
the school nurse, the dentist, the supervisor, the principal, or the
teacher explains the picture in such a way as to make it more
valuable.

Meola, L. K. (Chairman, Visual Education, John Hay High
School, Cleveland, Ohio) "Noon Movies the New Educa-
tional Tool." Educational Screen. 14:224-7. October 1935.

Students are shown two reels of film per day, or ten reels
per week. A feature film is run in serial fashion. The charge
made is one cent per reel. The funds collected from this enter-
prise have paid for a sound equipment unit in the auditorium, a
two channel public address system with a loud speaker in every
classroom and office, and microphone outlets in six vital places
in the building, as well as expenses to send school teams in
Stenography, Typing and Bookkeeping to state and national
contests.

All films produced by leading motion picture producers are
available to schools provided they comply with certain very
lenient regulations. Film programs are rented weekly, and the
average cost is $3.00 per reel. Selection is based on the Film
Estimates and on advice of the distributors. Student and faculty
recommendations are also followed.

Some of the most outstanding films of the year are shown.
Those only are excluded which contain gruesome or risque
scenes. Some of the features are light, musical and recreational,
while others are more serious.

Application of the noon movies to classroom work is done
directly and indirectly. The direct application is in the six
weeks' course in motion picture appreciation offered as part
of the 11A English course. The noon movie feature is the
laboratory for discussion in this class. The fact that only two

80 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

reels are shown daily helps greatly in the discussion. Good
practice is afforded in rating films. Students in this class make
recommendations to the program director for films they would
like to have shown in schools. English students use the text-
book, How to Appreciate Motion Pictures by Edgar Dale.

The indirect tie-up comes in the application of the film con-
tents to science, dramatics, oral English, art, home economics,
music, etc.

The House of Rothschild, for example, presented a concrete
illustration of "family shield" which was mentioned in the
Idylls of the King. Economics and business training classes
found much valuable material in that film. Political science
was clearly portrayed by the Napoleonic wars, tax collectors,
religious oppression, court scenes. The home economics group
and the art group found interesting information in the same
film, as did the physics students through the phenomenon of
Technicolor. The drama students and oral English students
were delighted with George Arliss and the other members of
the cast.

The Barretts of Wimpole Street was also used to correlate
school work with this recreational experience. Browning's
poetry, the story of his life and of that of Elizabeth Barrett
were studied. The characterizations, costume, furnishings and
many other details were enjoyed by students of home economics,
oral English and dramatics.

One significant outcome of these noon movies appears to
be a realization of the extensive research necessary to make a
great picture play.

The social values of this program are many. The students
conduct themselves properly, eliminating the need for discipline.
Surely there will result a discriminating taste in motion pic-
tures, and a desire for guidance.

Swarthout, Walter E. (Emerson School, May wood, 111.)
"Recreational Motion Pictures in the School." Educational
Screen. 14:978. April 1935.

The assembly program of films was developed after a 35mm.
projector had been purchased by the Parent-Teachers Associa-
tion. The children contributed from 10 to 20 cents for the
semester. A program of fifteen units to be shown twice a

ADMINISTRATION WITHIN A SCHOOL 81

month was worked out, and each shown in two assemblies;
one assembly for the lower grades and one for the higher
grades. Appropriate pictures were shown in each case.

Another phase of the motion picture program was purely for
the purpose of developing a better taste in children for motion
pictures. An admission charge of ten cents brought in enough
money to pay for the rental of films and equipment, and finally
for the purchase of sound attachments for the projector.

Collier, Robert, Jr. (Chemistry Department, South High
School, Denver) 'The Preparation and Presentation of a
Science Night Program." Educational Screen. 14:219-22.
October 1935.

The Science Nights in this school were intended to "sell the
school" to the community. They were planned well in advance
and much publicity prepared. The art department, the mechani-
cal drawing classes, news writing classes all aided in this phase
of the program. Definite plans were formulated regarding
traffic and seating of visitors.

The chief departments cooperating in the exhibits were the
Art, Biology, Astronomy, Mathematics, Physics, Psychology,
Chemistry, Latin, Library, Home Economics, News-writing, and
several extra-curricular groups. Each department was given
exhibit space and students were encouraged to demonstrate
material whenever possible.

The Biology Department displayed microscopic collections,
interesting pets, flower collections, and the like.

The Mathematics Department displayed demonstrations on
the slide rule, use of Pantagraphs and manipulation of Napiers
rods.

The Astronomy Department constructed a Reflecting Tele-
scope, the only one of its kind in the city. An exhibit of sky
charts, models of the solar system, and charts on the phases of
the moon were also shown.

The psychology of a necktie was one exhibit which caused
a great deal of comment.

The Physics Department showed Black Light, Neon tubes,
automatic telephones and switchboards, modern air conditioning
of rooms, and numerous others.

The Library contributed to every department by its display
of books and reference materials.

82 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

The Chemistry Department displayed 156 exhibits ranging
from chemistry involved in tooth powders and cosmetics to a
continuous demonstration of the effects of liquid air. Exhibits
were limited only by student participation, rather than by lack
of possibilities.

The Home Economics Department arranged an attractive
exhibit on "Consumer Education." This included discussion
of the value of various breakfast foods, showing slack fills and
mislabeling; samples of foods containing high and low food
values and comparative costs; a demonstration on vitamins;
samples of silk hose were compared ; the effect of various soaps
on textiles as well as methods for removing stains from these
textiles were shown. This training in proper buying is very
helpful for the students and their families.

The Latin Department displayed miniatures of Roman furni-
ture, war implements, and bridges and a chart on Latin deriva-
tions in the English language.

In addition to these exhibits, there were several of a more
or less "recreational" value. The school orchestra played concert
music in the auditorium. Before and after the concert the film
"Eyes of Science" was shown. A teacher demonstrated various
phenomena of High Tension Electricity. A glass blower from
the Denver Fire Clay Company gave a demonstration of his
skill.

A hobby show was also arranged, revealing interests which
had no connection with school work.

Although this type of program requires a great deal of time
and effort in preparation, it is felt that this is justified by the
satisfaction shown by the taxpayers.

The following summaries will indicate varying techniques
of school administration by principals. They offer many
helpful suggestions.

Snyder, Elmer W. (Principal, John Marshall High School,
Rochester, N.Y.) and Evaul, Clarence B. (Head of the
Department of Science) "Administering Visual- Audio Aids
in a High School." New York State Education. 24:616-17.
May 1937.

The John Marshall High School has a central sound system
as well as equipment for 16mm. motion picture, stereopticon,

ADMINISTRATION WITHIN A SCHOOL 83

and opaque projection. In order to encourage and distribute
the use of this equipment, a service bureau was organized among
the pupils under the direct supervision of a member of the
faculty.

The principal duties of the service bureau may be classified
as follows :

1. Radio Service

a) Furnish operators for the central system

b) Furnish operators for the portable system

c) Care for equipment

d) Maintain a radio bulletin board

2. Visual Service

a) Furnish operators for all visual equipment

b) Operate equipment for assembly and stage presenta-
tions

3. Photographic Service

a) Furnish photographers for school events

b) Photograph school activities

c) Make lantern slides for classroom and assembly use.

Faculty members are requested to file a request card for
materials, after consulting the lists of films and slides placed
on bulletin boards and in departmental offices. As soon as the
material arrives, the teacher is notified and a pupil operator is
assigned.

The boys assigned to the service bureau have benefited by
their training and have been eager to continue as members of
the squad.

Smith, Harvey N. (Abraham Lincoln High School, New
York City) "Organizing the Visual Instruction Program."
High Points. 13:40-4. November 1931.

A visual-instruction division has been organized in the
Abraham Lincoln High School and placed under the direction
of one teacher. A series of demonstration meetings for teachers
held twice a month enables each teacher to learn the mechanics
of visual instruction. The division assists and cooperates with
the various departments using visual aids by facilitating the use
and distribution of equipment and by collecting and classifying
information concerning the material.

An "optical squad" of nine boys has been organized which
delivers the projection machine to the classroom. The teacher.

84 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

however, does the actual mechanical work. Consignment cards
that each user must fill out describe the time and place of use.

Requisitions are called for at the beginning of the school
term. Each department is asked to keep a list of the visual
materials suited to its use.

A central bureau of visual education for secondary schools
is planned, similar to the one for elementary schools.

Gross, Ella (Principal, Public School 133, Brooklyn, N.Y.)
"Making Aids Available Within the School." National
Elementary Principal. 13:171-4. June 1934.

The plan followed by this school insures the use of all
available visual aids at the time they are most needed. The
school made an analysis of the course of study it was offering
in all subjects, for all grades, and compared the analysis with
the material available from the American Museum of Natural
History.

Preparing card indexes. The term plans for each grade
were arranged by weeks. On Set A index cards, the work
required for each week in each subject was listed; e.g., Nature
study: first week in Grade 1 called for "seasonal changes"
Grade 2, "seasonal changes"; Grade 3, "seasonal changes"
Grade 4, "seasonal changes"; Grade 5, "household insects"
Grade 6 "seasonal changes eclipse, equinox," and so on. An
analysis of the catalog provided by the American Museum of
Natural History showed that one set of slides, entitled "The
Seasons," was suitable for fourth-grade nature study. This
material was then listed on cards for Set B. The Set B cards
were then placed behind the cards in Set A. By this arrange-
ment the fourth-grade nature-study unit for the first week was
enriched by the set of slides in the Museum.

Preparing the school program. The school program is care-
fully cataloged and scheduled at the beginning of the school
year. This schedule is posted on every floor of the building for
ready reference. The teacher then knows the exact nature of
the material and the exact time of delivery (which is usually
one day in advance). The schedule for the use of projection
equipment is also posted, so the principal may know who is
using the machines in each class period.

ADMINISTRATION WITHIN A SCHOOL 85

Distributing aids and equipment. For each piece of mate-
rial there is a card listing in order the names of the various
teachers in the school who are going to use it. The monitors
who deliver the material then know the route to follow. The
material is returned to the principal's office when all the teachers
listed on the card have used it.

Two months before the end of each term, another requisition
is made out, based on the criticisms and recommendations of
teachers. Some of the materials are then eliminated and others
substituted.

McMillan, J. G. (Tulare Union High School, California)
"The Routine of Motion Pictures in a High School." Edu-
cational Screen. 5 :463-4. October 1926.

At the beginning of the school year, the teachers are invited
to indicate on request blanks the films they will want to use.
Catalogs of films are on file in the school library for inspection.
[Although there are catalogs from many organizations, the
author prefers to deal with one source.]

A committee of three faculty members assembles the request
blanks and adjusts the list to equalize distribution among the
departments. A schedule is made on the basis of one "picture
day" a week. The tentative schedule is presented to teachers
and then to the principal. The extension division of the uni-
versity then receives this list and returns it to the school when
the films have been checked.

On the "picture day," classes are directed to the auditorium
where film showings take place, according to the schedule.

Chambers, Elsie I. (Dept. of Visual Education, Huntington
Beach Schools, California) "Are You Interested in Visual
Education?" Educational Screen. 12:122-3. May 1933.

Visual education is a new field in name only. Visual aids
have been used for many years, but it is now evident that to be
really effective they must be used more scientifically.

The supervisor selects equipment, gives demonstrations, pre-
pares exhibits, and trains teachers.

"Visual work, to be most effective, should have an allotted
period on the program of every classroom and these periods
should be as strictly observed as periods of any subject in the
curriculum."

86 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Rules for teachers : ( 1 ) Keep all equipment clean, attractive,
up-to-date, and in good condition. (2) Prepare the class for
the lesson, or correlate the film with the text lesson. (3) Rooms
should be darkened and well ventilated, machines and chairs
arranged properly. (4) Choose still pictures and charts of
good quality (show few illustrations in one lesson.) (5) Use
models, exhibits, and the like, as tools for physical education,
social science, and vocational subjects. (6) Organize a form
of activity (film strip, dolls, modeling, and so forth) which
will emanate from a film lesson. (7) Take students on field
trips whenever possible.

Hoek, Floyd G. (Principal, Longfellow School, Teaneck,
N.J.) "Organizing the Visual Instruction Program." Visual
Instruction News. 4:11-12. March 1931.

Definite advance planning of the visual aids to be used during
the year facilitates the work in this school. After the films
or slides have been selected for the year, the schedule is verified
by the producers or distributors. Mimeographed copies of the
schedule are then distributed to all the teachers in the school.
Lesson plans and synopses of films, when provided, are given
to the teachers well in advance of showing dates. Posting of
the complete schedule of films has caused a noticeable increase
in the use of the library prior to the showing of certain films.

Appropriate music played during the showing of historical
films apparently augments the effectiveness of the picture.

The following school program was especially fitted to the
objectives of a school for deaf children.

Hester, M. S. "A Program of Visual Education for a Resi-
dential School." Volta Review. 34:503-6. October 1932.

This program for visual education is based on the results of
the following studies: (a) A survey by Mimi Fandrei in which
many schools report using their visual equipment for entertain-
ment purposes rather than for classroom work, (b) A study in
which advertising films were found to be less desirable than
strictly educational films for which supplementary guides are
furnished. A textbook plus a film also appeared to be more
effective than the text alone.

ADMINISTRATION WITHIN A SCHOOL 87

The Iowa School for the Deaf used films for geography,
history, hygiene, and science with interesting results. The films
were shown to two classes, one of average intelligence, the other
of less than average intelligence. At the end of a unit, a test
was given to both classes.

Test Results

Slow class Average class

No film at all ,

, . . . Poor Average

Film, with adequate preparation .
Film no preparation

Average Excellent
, . . . Poor Average

This school is also active in making amateur films. Films
designed for lip reading are already available. The school also
recommends slides, stereographs, and models as visual aids.
A course for teachers on techniques for using visual aids is
urged.

A program for schools of the deaf. A supervisor is se-
lected. He collects literature on the subject and studies equip-
ment and methods. His task is to organize and distribute mate-
rials for the school and to instruct teachers on methods. The
following equipment is purchased: a 16-mm. projector and
screen (a 35-mm. projector might also be secured) ; a lantern-
slide projector or a combination with opaque projector; charts,
maps, models, a set of slides, stereographs and stereoscopes.
A 16-mm. movie camera for making films is also worth con-
sidering. A place is allocated for storage. A catalog of the
visual aids in the school is sent to all teachers. The supervisor
makes a list of all free exhibit material that is furnished by
manufacturers.

III. SYSTEMS FOR FILING AND CATALOGING

The section that follows should be serviceable, especially
to the administrator who is setting up a system of organizing
and distributing materials. The articles included here give
concrete suggestions for filing, mounting, and cataloging
materials. Klein's system is being used in the United States
Government departments. It applies to extensive depart-

88 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

ments. Dick, speaking from the point of view of a librarian,
offers some worth-while methods for cataloging.

Klein, Margaret A. (Director, Children's Bureau, U. S. Dept.
of Labor, Washington, D.C.) "A Filing System for Visual
Aids." Educational Screen. 12:103-4, 128-9, 161-2. April,
May, June 1933.

This article describes a system used by Government depart-
ments for filing visual materials. Much of the work is based
on multicolored cards for filing different types of material in
different sections.

The distribution file furnishes a record of shipments, a check
on materials on loan, a history of material distributed during the
year. The cards in this file, salmon-colored, are divided into
five sections:

1. "Send" section (31 blue guide cards for each day of the
month). Behind each guide card are cards for the people
material is to be shipped to.

2. "Out" section (26 blue guide cards lettered A to Z).
After the material has been shipped, the card is transferred from
the "send" to the "out" section.

3. "Closed" section. After the material has been returned,
the card is transferred from the "out" to the "closed" section
for the year, thus affording a record of that year's work.

4. "Tentative" section, where requests pending further
notice are placed. These cards eventually reach the "send"
section (No. 1).

5. "Future" section, in which shipments of a future date,
often months in advance, are noted.

The reverse side of each card is used to record information
such as use of material, attendance at showing, criticisms, and
so on.

The stock file has as many divisions as there are types of
materials. Salmon-colored guide cards separate the divisions;
blue guide cards the subdivisions. Each piece of material has
its own record card, such as the one illustrated below.

The material available for loan may readily be seen by this
system.

The information file contains the card-information (a card
index of the names of firms and the equipment they sell) and

SYSTEMS FOR FILING AND CATALOGING 89

Motion-Picture Division

"Diet" Bought, May, 1930 No. Ik

Lent to;

Date,

Returned

Gray
Brown

5/31/30
5/16/30

Ret.-Ex.-O.K.*
Ret. -Ex. -O.K.,

"Returned, Examined, O.K.

the materials information (a file of circulars and catalogs of
equipment). The cards are classified as to the type of material,
with subheadings; for example, "Lantern slides, for geography,
of France." A list of appropriate headings can easily be made
up to fit the particular need of the system.

The photographic file is a vertical file in which the photo-
graphs and negatives are kept. One print is mounted on a
guide card at the top of which is the title, number, and so on.
Behind each guide card are additional copies of the photograph
in an envelope, and the negative in another envelope. A caption
should be printed on the back of each photograph.

Dick, Grace I. (Librarian, Board of Education, Pasadena,
California, Schools) "A New Opportunity for Librarians."
Library Journal 58:772-3. October 1, 1933.

This article describes, briefly but adequately, a practical plan
for cataloging visual aids by means of the Dewey decimal
system, which has proved so effective with books. Call numbers
identify the type of material. The numerals are used as with
books, i.e., 973.4-6, the -6 being the accession number.

Six types of cards are needed for filing and charging visual
aids. These are the title card, the subject card, the artist or
producer card, the charging card, the visual-aid request card,
and the shelf -list card.

By this method it is comparatively easy for a librarian to
determine what material is available for a given subject or by

90 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

a given artist or producer, and which materials are in circula-
tion. Subject headings are used according to the American
Library Association, or the Library of Congress. The descrip-
tive note for each visual aid should be repeated on each card.
[For sample entries, see article.]

Ireland, N. O. Picture File in School, College and Public Libra-
ries. The F. W. Faxon Co. Boston. 1935. 89p.

The purpose of this book is to aid librarians in organizing
a picture file. The chapter headings are: How to Begin;
Mounting; Picture Headings; Storage and Circulation; Uses
and Publicity. More than half the book is devoted to a list of
picture headings, beginning with ' 'abbeys" and ending with
"zodiac."

The section by English and Stratemeyer in the Eighth
Yearbook of the Department of Supervisors and Directors of
Instruction of the National Education Association is notably
one written by and for supervisors. The writers give direc-
tions for making storage equipment as part of the program
of "organizing and caring for materials."

English, Mildred and Stratemeyer, Florence B. "Selection
and Organization of Materials of Instruction." Materials
of Instruction. Dept. of Supervisors and Directors of Instruc-
tion, N. E. A. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College,
Columbia University. 8:129-48. 1935.

This article discusses the development of a materials bureau.
Such a bureau may be a part of a central bureau for the school
system, which may be located in the superintendent's office or
in the office of some other designated person ; or it may be in a
school, under the direction of the librarian or a committee of
teachers; or in the classroom, in the form of a collection in the
hands of the students.

The writer offers many helpful suggestions for the organ-
ization and care of materials. The filing system may be based
on that in the American Library Economy, published by The
H. W. Wilson Company, or on Knox's classifications. There
should be one card file of authors' names, one card file by subject,
and a vertical information file using the Dewey decimal system

ADMINISTRATION FOR A STATE 91

of classification, e.g., D Transportation; D Transportation,
boats; D 2 Transportation, trains, and so on. All material
relating to Transportation is then placed in folders marked to
correspond with the cards in the subject file.

The writer devotes a section to some very valuable sugges-
tions for mounting and preserving material.

We note here the sections of Rose Knox's book, School
Activities and Equipment, that may have some implications
for visual-education administrators.

Knox, Rose B. School Activities and Equipment: A Guide to
Materials and Equipment for Elementary Schools. Houghton
MifHin Co. Boston. 1927. 386p.

This book is one of the earliest on the activity program and
contains concrete suggestions for securing and organizing mate-
rials of instruction. No special reference is made, however, to
visual materials. The sections listed below might be pertinent:

"School Pictures," (still and screen), p. 229-55; "Problems
Growing out of Materials and Equipment," (chapter 9) espe-
cially the suggestions for the use and distribution of materials.

IV. ADMINISTRATION FOR A STATE

The services of state visual-education departments have
been analyzed and summarized by Dunn and Schneider.

Dunn, Fannie W. and Schneider, Etta. "Activities of State
Visual Education Agencies in the United States." Educa-
tional Screen, 14:99-100, 126-7, 158-61. April, May, June
1935.

Some form of state provision of visual materials has been
reported from twenty-six states. The agency most often under-
taking the service appears to be the extension division of the
state university or of the state college of agriculture as indicated
in the following list : x

1 Univ. of Georgia, Macon; Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor; and Univ. of
Vermont, Burlington have inaugurated a state-wide service since the publication of
this report. .

92 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

University of Arizona, Tucson.

University of California, Berkeley.

University of Colorado, Boulder.

University of Florida, Gainesville.

Indiana University, Bloomington.

University of Iowa, Iowa City.

Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts,

Ames.

University of Kansas, Lawrence.
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
University of Missouri, Columbia.
North Dakota Agricultural College, Fargo.
University of Oklahoma, Norman.
Oregon State System of Higher Education, Corvallis.
University of South Dakota, Vermillion.
University of Texas, Austin.
University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Washington State College, Pullman.

State departments of education that undertake the service
of distributing visual aids are as follows :

Massachusetts Dept. of Education, Boston.

Education Dept., University of the State of New York,

Albany.

Ohio State Department of Education, Columbus.
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Harrisburg.

The New Jersey State Museum, under the Department of
Conservation and Development, Trenton, distributes visual aids
as a library lends books.

The University of Illinois High School at Urbana has a
unique cooperative plan and acts as the agency for the state.

Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, is the visual-edu-
cation center for the state. This is a privately controlled institu-
tion.

Indiana and Pennsylvania state teachers' colleges, and that of
San Francisco, California, distribute visual aids among their
students.

Nature and extent of state services. Departments of visual
education have two general purposes: (1) to furnish instruc-
tional materials for classrooms, (2) to furnish entertainment
for community groups.

ADMINISTRATION FOR A STATE 93

Material commonly distributed: glass slides, film slides,
pictures and prints, still films, stereographs, motion pictures
(16-mm. and 35-mm.). The most widely used are glass slides
and film slides. Sixteen-millimeter films are increasingly pre-
ferred to the 35-mm. size. Sound films, although not generally
distributed, are growing in supply.

States differ in the ways in which they assist teachers in
the selection of material. Some issue catalogs and supplemen-
tary bulletins or even give personal supervision. The usefulness
of catalogs depends upon the care with which the materials
included were selected, classified, and annotated.

Films intended primarily for teaching purposes are called
"strictly educational," and those issued for advertising purposes
are called "industrial." Since the advertising films are usually
free, they are extensively used. The Ohio State Department
of Education takes a strong stand against the use of such films,
while the University of Kentucky distributes them almost exclu-
sively.

The Universities of Missouri and Kansas designate strictly
educational films and industrial films by separate categories.

States aid teachers to select cataloged aids by distinguishing
strictly educational from industrial films (Universities of Okla-
homa, Colorado, Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, and Kansas, North
Dakota Agricultural College, and Brigham Young University),
by annotations in the catalogs (best are from the Universities
of Texas and Wisconsin, and Indiana University), by organiza-
tion according to subject matter (University of Arizona and
Ohio State Department of Education), and by information in
teachers' manuals (University of Wisconsin and Indiana Uni-
versity) .

The amount and type of material supplied vary according to
the budgets of the different departments. Some departments,
however, with comparatively small funds available are able to
supply a large amount of material. This is done by cooperative
planning.

The Illinois cooperative plan, for example, was developed
at the state university under Dr. R. T. Gregg, assistant principal
of the University High School. 2 Member schools pay $5 per year
and contribute one 16-mm. teaching film to the library. This
entitles the school to use of the 16-mm. films and glass slides

2 Cooperative libraries have been established at Syracuse University, and Mis-
sissippi and Arkansas are planning similar projects.

94 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

for two years. At the beginning of the second year of the
plan, there were 150 reels of film available to member schools.
The state universities of Kansas and Colorado have pooled
their resources and extended their service to other states as well.
For a flat fee, schools in any state near by may avail themselves
of the materials in both libraries.

Costs to borrower. The Universities of Florida and the
New York State Department of Visual Education offer free
service. Only slides, however, are distributed. The New Jersey
State Museum distributes all its visual aids to the schools of
that state without cost. Free service for industrial films only
is offered by the University of Kentucky and the University
of Minnesota.

A low annual registration charge for industrial films is made
by the Universities of Texas, Oklahoma, Arizona, North
Dakota Agricultural College, and the Oregon State Department.
These institutions also permit individual orders. The Univer-
sity of South Dakota makes a "per week" stipulation instead
of the "per day" regulation of the other departments.

Among films termed "rental," there are several types: (a)
industrial films that have had to be procured by purchase, rather
than by donation, (b) theatrical films that have been edited and
transposed to the 16-mm. size for school use, (c) strictly educa-
tional films, such as Yale Chronicles, DeVry Films, and the like.
Educational films are usually accompanied by teachers' guides.
The Yale Chronicles and some others are lent by the day.

The Universities of Colorado, Kansas, Minnesota, and Mis-
souri charge flat annual registration fees for the use of all
visual aids. Iowa State College, the Universities of California
and Texas, and Indiana University rent sound films at about
$2 a day. The Universities of Iowa and Minnesota distribute
the physical science sound films made at the University of
Chicago.

Services other than the distribution of visual aids. Some
state departments offer helpful catalog arrangements. Seventeen
of the departments issue catalogs of visual aids, but some
catalogs are more carefully arranged than others. Visual aids
may be organized alphabetically, or classified as to source or
subject matter. Other departments offer advisory service in the
purchase of equipment.

ADMINISTRATION FOR A STATE 95

Handbooks of visual instruction are issued by the following:
Iowa State College, New York State Visual Instruction Division,
Ohio State Department of Education, University of Wisconsin,
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, and Brigham Young Uni-
versity (E. C. Dent, Handbook of Visual Instruction.) Class-
room guides are usually compiled by the producer of the film.
Glass slides are more often accompanied by teachers' guides
than are films.

The department in Pennsylvania distributes monographs.
New York State distributes lesson units, listing the slides that
may be borrowed to supplement the teaching. Iowa State
College issues mimeographs on the various phases of visual
education, sources, recent developments, and so forth.

Teacher-training courses are being given by many colleges
and universities and have been made compulsory for teachers
in the State of Pennsylvania.

The article by Abrams, which follows, indicates the type
of supervision which a State director of visual instruction
offers to teachers in the schools.

Abrams, Alfred W. (Former director of the Visual Educa-
tion Division, New York State Education Dept.) "Admin-
istration and Supervision of Visual Instruction." New York
State Education. 19:558-62. March 1932.

Some practical pointers for supervisors and administrators
are as follows :

Use care in the purchase of equipment. Compare various
types before selecting. See that new school buildings make
provision for projection equipment, electrical outlets, and so
on. All equipment in schools should be properly conditioned,
and teachers should be given adequate instruction in the hand-
ling of equipment.

Further suggestions result from a personal visit to numerous
schools in the state :

Stand at the screen and depend upon a pupil to operate the
lantern. To concentrate the attention of the entire class quickly
upon the feature to be observed, it is frequently advantageous
for the teacher to point to the screen. Otherwise some of the
pupils will not see the feature until too late. Furthermore

96 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

there is an advantage in having pupil and teacher face each
other.

Make an adequate study of the picture before presenting it to
a class. Be able to recognize the picture when it is projected
without referring to its title.

Analyze the picture in an orderly way. A picture cannot
be seen as a whole. Each feature should be observed separately.
Usually there is a major center of interest to which subordinate
features are related.

Use the picture so as to contribute directly to the development
of the day's lesson. Do not ask "What does this picture show,"
and do not encourage pupils to report everything they see in the
picture. Pupils should learn to select what is pertinent to the
problem under consideration just as they learn to select in their
reading.

Lead pupils to determine from observation what the picture
represents. Giving pupils verbal information is of less value
than leading them to observe for themselves.

Avoid using too many pictures at one time. Otherwise the
exercise is likely to be only a picture show.

Use pictures as an early, direct means of instruction, rather
than at relatively long and irregular intervals for review.

Make questions specific and require definite answers.

Expect pupils to give reasons and to draw conclusions, but
first be certain they have clearly and definitely perceived the
objective facts represented by the picture.

Lead pupils to discuss the pictures freely and fully. As
opportunity is offered, call upon pupils to make simple drawings
on paper or at the blackboard; for example, let them indicate
the position of an object or place relative to something else, or
let them draw an oblique line to show the steepness of the slope
of a mountain.

Use the observation and discussion of pictures to motivate
topical reading and the use of reference books. Have pupils
make use of the textbook for reference when the lantern exercise
is in progress. For such work the overhead lights can be turned
on temporarily.

Work with pupils in preparing a topical outline of what
has been learned from a picture or groups of pictures. Make
the lantern work, so far as possible, a study exercise.

ADMINISTRATION FOR A STATE 97

Abrams, Alfred W. "The Relation of a State Bureau to the
School Systems." Visual Instruction News. 5 :13. March
1932.

By preparing pictures and directing their use, a state bureau
of visual instruction may accomplish results that are impossible
if the selection and use of pictures are left entirely to individual
schools or to school systems. All slides in the Visual Instruc-
tion Division of New York are made from state-owned negatives
selected by high standards for significance, authenticity, truth-
fulness, and attractiveness.

When a single state bureau supplies visual aids to the schools
and educational organizations of the state, the cost is much
less, in proportion to use, than when the visual aids are owned
by individual organizations.

The New York State Division now makes the possession of
standard classroom equipment lantern, screen, and suitable
stand a condition of loan in the case of most of the slides it
furnishes. Teaching notes are furnished. No rental charge is
made for this service.

The growing need for cooperation within a state is per-
ceptible from the Massachusetts report of a cooperative plan
for the purchase of films and, in a different way, from the
incorporation of two separate services in the state of Oregon
into one well-organized center.

Burt, U. S. (Director of Visual Education, Oregon State Col-
lege) "Unified Department of Visual Instruction." Educa-
tional Screen. 12:39. February 1933.

The visual-education service of Oregon, formerly divided
between the Oregon State College at Corvallis and the University
of Oregon, was centralized in 1933 at the Oregon State College.
All visual-aid material may now be obtained from the single office
at Corvallis. "A more complete service at less cost to the user
as well as more economical to the tax payers is possible through
this combination plan." [The article continues with a detailed
summary of this service.]

"Educational Film Library Planned." Educational Screen. 13:
252. November 1934.

A cooperative plan for the purchase of films is being con-
sidered by the Massachusetts schools. The plan was formulated

98 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

by Chester F. Prothero, chairman of the Visual Education
Committee, Beaver County Day School.

Each of forty schools is to invest $24, yielding $960 for the
purchase of teaching films. The films are to be deposited in a
centrally located office. A total of forty films would allow one
film to each school each week. A week's period is desirable
because it permits the use of the film by several classes in the
school. The membership rate would apply for one year. Subse-
quent rates would depend upon whether other films were to be
purchased, or whether only the handling expense for the original
forty films would have to be covered.

Fox, F. Wilcken (Secretary, Bureau of Visual Instruction,
Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah) "A Wide Area
Visual Instruction Service." Educational Screen. 14:252-4.
November 1935.

This article describes the origin and development of the
visual-instruction service in the privately endowed Brigham
Young University. Since its inception in 1932-33, the office
has added to its staff and to its collection and is planning a
more effective distribution of materials.

The Bureau has realized the need for good instructional
films and is attempting to solve the problem in a small way by
experimenting with original films made on the campus.

Kooser, H. L. "Visual Instruction Iowa State College."
Educational Screen. 15 :241-2. October 1936.

The visual-instruction department of Iowa State College is
aided in its work throughout the state by a similar department
in the Extension Division of the University of Iowa, Iowa City.

A department such as that at Iowa State College has several
well-defined objectives which may be listed as follows : (1) selec-
tion and preparation of visual aids; (2) distribution of visual
aids; (3) maintenance; (4) aid in developing the proper proce-
dure in using visual aids; (5) preparation of materials incident
to the established program of visual aids and information on
projection equipment.

Those visual aids such as sound and silent motion pictures,
glass slides, and similar materials which lend themselves to
physical distribution through a central agency, are included in the
department library. The splendid quality of 16-mm. educa-

ADMINISTRATION FOR A STATE 99

tional films now available has greatly aided in the process of
selecting films which may be coordinated with courses of study.
The department has large collections of glass slides definitely
related to the curriculum.

All material is circulated on requests for use at a particular
time. Nearly all orders are sent direct to the borrower from
headquarters. Occasionally a subject will be sent from one
person to another. Although this saves time in transit, it does
not give the department an opportunity to check the film and
determine its physical condition. The effort is to arrange the
schedules so that subjects arrive in advance of the date on which
they are to be used, so that there will be opportunity to arrange
for their use 'in the most effective manner. Whenever possible,
the material is left for a sufficient length of time so the school
can use it most efficiently. The extension of the booking period
contributes to more efficient use.

Guides are available to accompany many of the department's
better films. These are sent out for the use of the teachers.
In cases where guides have not been prepared, the department
has made up some material which will at least give the exhibitor
an idea in advance of what the films contain.

The department supplies films to groups other than schools,
such as garden clubs, individuals, parent-teacher association
groups, luncheon clubs, and the like. A printed catalog is dis-
tributed every two years. A mimeographed supplement is
issued in each intervening year.

A great deal of film damage can be eliminated by educating
those who use films to take proper care of them. The depart-
ment has been carrying on a campaign to develop more careful
handling of films.

The department considers it a part of its responsibility to
train teachers in the classroom use of films. Some of this can
be done at state and district teachers' meetings. "We also do
considerable correspondence and have prepared some material
which we believe is of value. We have not thus far instituted
courses in visual aids, but we are working toward this gradually.

"We have many letters asking advice in buying projection
equipment. We must, of course, be entirely neutral in our replies.
We always go into the problem carefully, pointing out details of
each projector, and suggesting that demonstrations be secured."

100 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

The plan described in the article by Noble is a broad
and most extensive one, under which the state administration
of visual aids will be made to serve each school in the coun-
try with maximum efficiency.

Noble, Lorraine (American Council on Education) "Distri-
bution An Aid to Visual Aids." Educational Screen. 15 :
176-7. June 1936.

There is need for strengthening and coordinating the various
state and university motion picture distributing services in order
that all schools may be able to secure films with minimum waste
of effort. One of the possibilities is to extend film centers to
reach teacher-training institutions, other state universities, state
and public libraries with an equitable sharing of responsibility.

There are three types of educational films which schools
are called upon to use : first, those that a school should have on
hand at all times, for reference and daily class work; second,
those used as "background," and borrowed from time to time
from a more distant distribution point or from a local film
library or depository ; and finally, current films that should move
rapidly through the schools, as for instance, films of special
interest, current events, holiday films, etc.

A state distributing center, after securing a motion picture
would make it known to the various teacher-training institutions
within that state. Demonstrations and other cooperative service
might be offered to individual teachers. In a large city school
system the center for information and advice would be the city
film library. County units might develop a cooperative scheme
for purchasing projectors and films.

Perhaps the greatest advantage to be derived from a net-
work of educational film distributing units is that the service
would be of, by, and for the schools, familiar with their needs
and with immediate entree therein. A state department or
university would also have financial responsibility throughout
the field, both for the safekeeping of the films and other aids,
and for the payment and accounting therefor. A film producer
should be less reluctant to deposit his films with such a group
on a percentage basis.

A program extending the use of films would call for ad-
ditional personnel, more projectors, films, and the like. N.Y.A.
assistance might well be used in the high schools and colleges.

NATIONAL PLANS 101

The burden for distribution and expansion of the use of visual
aids under this plan would be where it properly belongs, among
the educational organizations of the state. It is not fair to expect
a commercial organization to carry all of the burden of promo-
tion of visual aids, teacher-training, demonstration of materials,
when such commercial organization has so small a market as at
present exists in this field.

Government help might assist in working out this plan so
that it reaches not only the 48 state central depositories, but
also the 1800 colleges, the 10,000 public libraries and eventually
the 275,000 schools. Another suggestion is embodied in the
possibility for three or four over-all regional depositories : one
in the middle west, one in the south, one in the far west, and one
on the east coast.

There is need for a central clearing house, or a supply cor-
poration operating from a point like New York City, to locate,
produce, collect and make available appropriate educational
films to fit the exact needs of the classroom. Such an organiza-
tion would be representative of all the national educational
agencies interested in this field, as well as of the commercial and
professional film distributors and manufacturers of equip-
ment and other visual aids.

V. NATIONAL PLANS

Plans for a national visual-education enterprise are few.
The organizations outlined by Cummings, 1923, and Stone,
1925, are valuable. The motion-picture exchange urged in
an editorial in the Volta Review shows that the need for
some national cooperative service is still evident. The
British Film Institute set-up is outlined to show what can
be and is being done in one country.

Cummings, Carlos E. (Buffalo Society of National Science)
"Suggestions for a National Exchange for Lantern Slides."
Educational Screen. September 1923.

A national exchange for lantern slides would have many
functions. It might, first of all, collect and maintain a library
of negatives for the preparation of slides. This library service

102 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

would be extended to towns and cities where slides are not
available.

A national exchange might serve as a laboratory for the
preparation of slides from negatives and would set up standards
of technical quality. It would give advice to schools and indi-
viduals on the purchase of projection apparatus and would
provide valuable research data for manufacturers of apparatus.

A national exchange would also serve as a central clearing
house and bureau of exchange among its subscribers for duplicate
lantern-slide material. One institution might exchange some
desirable surplus slides for others contained in the national
library. The exchange would provide as comprehensive ma-
terial as possible along educational lines and would include,
among other subjects, travel, Americanization, science, industry,
history, art, Bible, and literature. In collaboration with educa-
tional specialists, uniform educational sets might be prepared
with a brief explanatory manuscript.

All materials would be used for purely noncommercial, edu-
cational purposes. The exchange would offer service to sub-
scribers only. Such a foundation would have to be endowed, as
it would not, under these terms, be self-supporting.

Stone, George E. (Carmel-by-the-Sea, Monterey, Calif.)
"Visual Education : A Retrospect, an Analysis and a Solu-
tion." Educational Screen. 4:329-37. June 1925.

In a note preceding the article, Stone says that he takes
visual education as it already exists and makes no attempt to
evaluate the effectiveness of films as compared with other aids.
He is interested, rather, in the economics that control the pro-
duction and distribution of visual aids. He concludes that there
are fundamental economic limitations to the variety of material
that commercial organizations can afford to carry in stock, and
price limitations that prevent these organizations from producing
the best type of material for scientific purposes. The solution,
he believes, will be a foundation organized on the nonprofit basis
that has been so successful with the Field and American History
Museums.

Stone has had some very interesting experiences in the
production of educational films. The article itself should be
read to appreciate why he arrived at the conclusions just stated.

Some educational films produced by Stone are : How
Life Begins (4 reels), Living World (4 reels), Flame of Life

NATIONAL PLANS 103

(1 reel), Food (1 reel), Malaria and Mosquito (2 reels). He
also reports having made eleven one-reel films of cultural and
entertainment value using the Prizma process of color photog-
raphy and color sequences in dramatic productions.

The plan expressed by Carlos E. Cummings for a national
lantern-slide exchange inspired Stone's plan for a visual-
education foundation. The plan follows.

Organisation. Twenty-five trustees selected for wide cultural
interest no salary a five-year term. The trustees will appoint
their successors. There should also be a director, a technical
staff, and a comptroller.

Purpose. A depository for negatives of all kinds. The nega-
tives will be filed by a librarian and stored under proper physical
conditions. Negatives are to be acquired by gift, purchase, ex-
change, and production. A psychologist and his department
will keep in touch with the needs of teachers. [The duties of
the technical staff are listed.]

Financial aspect. Income will come from (1) membership,
(2) gifts and bequests, (3) sale, (4) charges for technical
assistance and storage. Profits will be used for an endowment
fund, the purchase of photographs not otherwise available, and
motion-picture production (the films to be sold at a small profit).

Stone prophesies that this plan will be realized by 1935.
To prove the effectiveness of such an organization, he points to
the American and Field Museums, which accumulate and dis-
play free to the public a wealth of material. The beauty and
accuracy of these exhibits would be beyond the reach of any
corporation depending on admissions alone to pay dividends.
"No amount of business organization or efficiency of production
will offset the fundamental economic handicaps which confront
producers of educational films. . . . The production of films by
institutions which are not expected to pay dividends, or to justify
the outlay by advertising value, offers the highest possibility for
public service through films."

Good business management, Stone notes, has increased
the endowments of the Museums. Pensions to employees have
been established for long and honest service. Collections are
housed under conditions that will extend their usefulness to the
utmost and make available to future generations the knowledge
and culture of the past.

104 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

"Suggestions for a Motion Picture Exchange." Editorial. Volta
Review. 37:76. February 1935.

[This editorial was inspired by an article in the same issue
containing an annotated list of films used in one school. The
writers hoped the list would be an aid to other teachers who
seek to use the best films as visual aids. ]

The editor sees the need for a regular exchange service of
this type. He suggests an exchange of mimeographed records
of all films used for a year. Perhaps the Volta Bureau could
use these records for organization into a single list to be pub-
lished in time for the beginning of the school year.

As a result of such a selective list, a library of the best edu-
cational films, both free and rental, could be assembled and edited
to fit the needs of the schools more closely (with special reference
to the deaf). The industries might even finance such revisions.
A distributing center might buy and adapt the educational films
and distribute them to member schools, with perhaps a small
handling charge.

Conclusions. The motion-picture film is a real short cut
in education, but a short cut only when enough of the good
films available are known and fitted into teaching programs.

The British Film Institute (4 Great Russell Street, London,
W.C. 1). A descriptive leaflet issued by the Institute. For
further information apply to the Secretary of the Institute.

The British Film Institute belongs to the independent type
of national institute; i.e., it is neither set up nor controlled by
the State, though its aims and constitution have been approved by
the Board of Trade.

Control is vested in the chairman and board of nine governors
chosen so as to represent equally the producers, renters, and
exhibitors of films. Educational and cultural interests and the
interests of the general public are expressed through the voice
of the membership.

The general aim is "to encourage the use and development
of the cinematograph as a means of entertainment and instruc-
tion."

A number of specific aims have already been projected. The
Institute, for example, is prepared to supply up-to-date informa-
tion and advice concerning apparatus, supply of films, and

NATIONAL PLANS 105

sources. It publishes a quarterly illustrated magazine for the
purpose of describing experiments and encouraging discussion. In
addition, a monthly bulletin of films suitable for educational
purposes or of unusual merit is issued to all its members. An
authoritative critical catalog of such films is being compiled.

The Institute is endeavoring to build up a strong body of
public opinion in support of films which possess artistic, educa-
tional, scientific, or cultural value. It encourages investigation
of the different special uses to which films can be put in the
various subjects. It plans to build up a film library to prevent
films of permanent artistic and documentary value from passing
out of existence. It organizes an annual summer school for the
purpose of training teachers. It is surveying sources of non-
theatrical films.

Dale, Edgar (Bureau of Educational Research, Ohio State
University, Columbus, Ohio) "A Discussion Concerning the
Proposed American Film Institute." Educational Screen.
14:249-52. November 1935.

The tentative objectives of the proposed American Film
Institute are as follows :

1. To develop a national appreciation of the potential con-
tribution of the motion picture to the cultural life of America.

2. To collect and distribute significant information concern-
ing motion pictures in education at home and abroad.

3. To stimulate the production and use of motion pictures
for educational purposes.

4. To promote the cooperation of all agencies interested in
the production and use of motion pictures in education.

5. To initiate and promote research pertaining to motion
pictures and allied visual and auditory aids in education.

Many educators are of the opinion that motion pictures
deserve a much more significant and important place in the
educational scheme. There is, however, no clearing house for
information concerning the status or use of film in the schools,
or the needs and difficulties of teachers and principals in develop-
ing a film program. This information is particularly valuable for
administrators and to producers of films and projection equip-
ment.

Another important type of assistance that the Film Institute
might render would be to set up committees of teachers and

106 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

specialists to evaluate films. The Institute would aid in organiz-
ing the committees and in guiding them.

One undeveloped activity that is very important is the dis-
semination of information regarding independent motion pictures
produced by faculty members of various educational institu-
tions. Such films, when produced, are not now made available
to other institutions. The American Film Institute might help
to organize a circulating system of "amateur," independent, edu-
cational films.

The American Film Institute might encourage vital research
in its own field, e.g., the relative advantages of silent and sound
films, contributions of motion pictures in various subject-matter
fields, the use of talking and of silent pictures in adult education,
research on methodology in the field of visual and sensory aids.
Courses for teachers in the use of visual aids need to be organized
scientifically.

The work of the Film Institute will not conflict with any
movement now under way. It will not produce films. It will
not censor films. It will not attempt to enter into any of the con-
flicts in the entertainment field. It will serve only as a coordinat-
ing and clearing-house center.

During the past year the program of the American Coun-
cil on Education with respect to its activities in the field of
the motion picture in education has been completely reor-
ganized. At the New Orleans meeting of the Department
of Visual Instruction Hoban, who is associate in Motion
Pictures in Education of the American Council on Education,
summarized the plans and progress of the Educational Motion
Picture Project to date. This plan has here been briefly
outlined.

Hoban, Charles F., Jr. "Services of the American Council on
Education." Educational Screen. 16:117. April 1937.

Since its inception in 1935 the Educational Motion Picture
Project of the American Council on Education has undertaken
a clearing house function for the wider and more effective use
of films in the classroom. During the past year activities have
been concentrated on (1) the development of conferences and

NATIONAL PLANS 107

programs related to the preparation of teachers in the use of
motion pictures and other modern teaching devices, (2) the
preparation of materials for publkation, and (3) the initiation
of studies related to problems of motion pictures in education.

1. Teacher training program.

The proceedings from the conference held at the University
of Wisconsin and that held at Teachers College in 1937 are
available from the offices of the American Council on Education.
The conference held at the University of Florida is being re-
ported by Donald Bean of the University of Chicago Press.

2. Publication program.

a) Motion Pictures in Education: A Summary of
Literature. A Source Book for Teachers and Ad-
ministrators. Compiled by Edgar Dale, Fannie W.
Dunn, Charles Hoban, and Etta Schneider. H. W.
Wilson Co. N.Y. 1937

b) Motion Pictures in Education: Status and Needs.
American Council on Education. Washington, D.C.
1937

c) Teaching with Motion Pictures: Handbook of Ad-
ministrative Practice. Edgar Dale and Lloyd L.
Ramseyer. American Council on Education. Wash-
ington, D.C. 1937

d) New Approaches to Education Through Materials
of Instruction. Henry Klonower, chairman, Com-
mittee on Teacher Training in Motion Pictures in
Education. American Council on Education. 1937

e) Status of Audio-Visual Equipment in Schools. Cline

M. Koon, and members of the American Council on
Education. U.S. Office of Education. Washington,
D.C.

f) National Visual Education Directory. Compiled by
Cline M. Koon and Allan Noble. American Council
on Education. 1936

3. Program of research studies.

a) Patterns of distribution of educational motion pic-
tures throughout the United States, with critical
evaluation.

b) Evaluation procedures which are being employed
by school districts for the selection and use of edu-
cational films. An attempt will be made to evaluate
check lists in order that a standard evaluation form
may be developed.

108 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

c) Production, distribution, teacher training, and class-
room procedures with educational films in countries
of western Europe, such as France, Italy, Germany,
and England.

PART Two

TEACHING WITH THE MOTION PICTURE
AND OTHER VISUAL AIDS

COMPILED BY

FANNIE W. DUNN
ETTA SCHNEIDER

TEACHING WITH THE MOTION PICTURE AND
OTHER VISUAL AIDS

INTRODUCTION

In this section an attempt has been made to provide, in
so far as literature in the field will permit, an account of the
use being made by teachers and supervisors of motion pic-
tures and other visual sensory aids. Some 400 titles were
carefully examined, of which some were completely rejected,
some are merely mentioned herein, and a large number have
been summarized extensively. The basis for selection was the
contribution of the article to an understanding of some of
the techniques employed in using these new media of instruc-
tion.

The greatest difficulty encountered in this research was
the inadequacy of data contained in the articles concerning
the exact use made of the materials. What usually occurs
is this : a teacher develops a unit of work in what he or she
considers to be an outstanding fashion. He writes a paper
describing the unit, and submits it to an educational journal.
It is then published as a testimonial of the value of visual
sensory aids for instruction. Unfortunately, many of the
articles are brief and sketchy, offering but few concrete sug-
gestions for a beginner.

There are certain minima of information which a teacher
who is planning to use motion pictures would like to obtain
from reading articles written by his colleagues. Following
are the basic essentials which are desirable in a report dealing
with teaching techniques i 1

What are the objectives of the unit under consideration?
What is the place of the motion picture in relation to the objec-
tives of this unit ?

1 See also "Outline to Guide a Teacher in Writing the Story of a Unit She
Has Taught." Effie Bathurst. Quarrie Corp. Chicago. 1937.

112 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

What grade level, mental level, or environmental circumstances

in the lives of these children have caused limitations in their

experiential background ?
What are some of the conditions operating before and after

the use of the motion picture?
What other types of experience were provided in the unit, and

what sequence did these follow?
What was the teacher's past experience in using the motion

picture ?
Has the writer attempted to evaluate the motion pictures used in

this unit in terms of the objectives to be achieved?
What provisions were made for individualizing instruction?
What were the reactions of the pupils?
What leads were furnished for further activities or interests

by their reactions?

What technique for using films was found to be most desirable ?
What were some of the problems encountered in securing or

using motion pictures ?
What conclusions has the writer drawn from his use of the

motion picture as a teaching aid ?
What suggestions would he make to others ?
Has the writer been specific in reporting titles, sources, cost, and

the like?

Teachers should be urged to submit for publication the
reports of valuable lessons or units of work with respect to
the motion picture. In his recent book, How to Use the
Educational Sound Film, Dr. M. R. Brunstetter makes the
following statement:

"The supervisor should encourage the publication, even if only in
mimeographed form, of outstanding lessons which his teachers have
developed. Such recognition of professional excellence not only encour-
ages the creative teacher, but helps to bring others up to a higher level
of skill, by suggesting film uses and procedures which might not have
occurred to them."

One of the major defects in much of the use which
teachers make of films is the failure to evaluate properly
either the film used or the use made of it. It is true that
the interest of the pupils is one form of evaluation, yet it can
be misleading. Furthermore, informational and factual tests,
while in themselves important, have the same inherent defects

TEACHING WITH THE MOTION PICTURE 113

in testing films as they have in other fields. In addition,
unless one has pretested in the beginning, it is difficult to
determine the number of facts which accrue as a result of
seeing the film as compared with the ones which they had
before the film was shown. The absence of critical evalu-
ation in most of the accounts of the use of visual aids in
teaching makes it difficult reporting. There is no virtue in
the use of new means or methods of instruction if learning
is not thereby improved. Certain it is also that the motion
pictures available for school use are of exceedingly unequal
value, and it is important that teachers select as well as
possible in order to use instruction time most effectively,
and report the bases of selection to aid the reader in de-
termining the value of the new procedures.

I. TEACHING TECHNIQUES GENERALLY APPLICABLE
TO ALL SUBJECTS

The purposes which visual aids serve may be regarded
formally and pedagogically, or informally as a matter of
current experience. Whether used in school or encountered
at home, at the theatre, or elsewhere in the environment, pic-
tures, sound or silent, motion or still, are for the child a
means to at least the following ends :

1. Getting facts, or as a direct source of information.

2. Developing concepts, or a broader sensory development.

3. Promoting thought.

4. Developing attitudes and interests.

5. Socialization.

The teacher may reinforce these outcomes by review or
summary, or evaluate them by testing, and thus an addi-
tional end served may be stated :

6. Review, summary, or test.

114 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Although accounts differ considerably in formality, or in
descriptive detail, and although the reported procedures ex-
press widely varying educational philosophies, in many if not
most, there are certain phases of technique which appear to
be generally applied: For example, it is more or less agreed
that a film should be previewed before using; that a teacher
should present it to the class as a definite tie-in with the work
under consideration; that there should be some comment by
teacher and/or pupils during a showing; that there must be
some form of follow-up; that repetition of the film is desir-
able only to clarify misconceptions; and that the material
contained in the film should be summarized, or re-viewed in
the light of the entire unit being studied. It should here be
noted that most of the articles deal exclusively with the
motion picture as visual instruction, though a few include
other types of visual aids. Consequently most of the dis-
cussion on technique here will be concerned with the motion
picture. Where the technique for using a still picture or
lantern slide applies equally to the use of films, such articles
have been included.

It is interesting to note the criticisms and cautions which
Dransfield made a decade ago and to compare conditions
which prevail today to determine whether any progress has
been made in classroom teaching with films. We hope that
some of the most serious criticisms have already been obliter-
ated, and that other techniques will be developed with further
intelligent use. The series of questions which Winchell
poses in his article might well supplement those presented in
our introduction. It is significant that he stresses the pupil's
point of view in selecting motion pictures. In fact, pupils
are keen judges of what is good for them and what they
would like to see, growing keener, of course, with age and
experience. Winchell and Walters 2 illustrate this point in
their articles.

2 Page 211.

TEACHING WITH THE MOTION PICTURE 115

Horn and Gramet make the point that an educational
motion picture is more than the "raw material of instruction"
to be organized by the teacher. Horn believes that the motion
picture should be a directive agency in itself, and may pos-
sibly furnish a better organization for some lessons than
could a verbal lesson. Gramet believes that a film lesson
planned and produced in accordance with psychological and
pedagogical principles will require little, if any, supplementary
explanation or second showing.

The suggestions for using pictures in the classroom, made
by Sexauer, although intended for flat pictures, are equally
applicable to the motion picture. Teaching procedures for
using motion pictures as a major and a minor portion of the
lesson whole, as described by Hollinger, are very suggestive.
However, it should be noted that an evaluation of the motion
picture cannot be measured by objective tests which deal with
factual items alone. Gow points out that the teaching of
facts, important though that may be, plays a small part in
real education. The value of the cinema is not measured
by facts, but by attitudes, awareness, sensitivity to conditions.
It is not fair to measure these gains by tests for factual
information.

Unzicker and his committee have devised a chart for
correlating the technique of teaching with visual aids with
the elements of the learning process itself. This is an inter-
esting comparison. The resolutions concerning the tech-
niques of teaching with films adopted by the International
Congress of the Teaching and Educational Film are next
quoted. The execution of these resolutions, especially the
fourth and fifth, requires teacher preparation and constructive
supervision.

Johnson and Calo have summarized effectively the general
principles underlying teaching with films.

116 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

A propos of the place of visual aids in the curriculum,
Robertson points out that:

"The greatest difficulty in the use of visual aids is the personal
equation. A teacher spends several years training for her profession
and receives only the rudiments of her art. She has to adjust, amplify,
and delete to suit different types and nationalities of children. She
adjusts the pedagogical art as taught in her training school to suit her
own personality and ability. This should be remembered in using visual
aids. Their use will strengthen her teaching process and it will im-
measurably lighten the teaching burden, but it stands to reason that she
will have to adapt it to her personal pedagogy. If the results at first
do not come up to her expectations, the use of the aids should not be
condemned. She should remember her early teaching experiences and
the necessity she encountered of fitting her pedagogy to herself and her
pupils. The same procedure followed when adapting visual aids to
her teaching process will eventually enliven and ease her teaching efforts
beyond her greatest expectation."

The reference for this quotation, and other articles
dealing with a general discussion of technique which have
not here been summarized, are:

Robertson, E. D. (Vice-President, Stillfilm Inc.) "Some
Principles in the Use of Visual Aids." Los Angeles School
Journal. 14:20-2. June 27, 1931.

Gramet, Charles A. "Methodology of the Motion Picture
Lesson." Educational Screen. 15 :304-5. December 1936.

Reed, Paul C. (Supervisor of Visual and Radio Education,
Rochester, N.Y.) "An Antidote for Verbalism." N.Y.S.
Education. 24:139-40. November 1936.

Hardie, John L. (London) "Classroom Methods." Sight and
Sound. 5:no.20:154. Winter 1936-37.

Lampe, Felix (Germany) "Geography Teaching with Films."
International Review of Educational Cinematography. 4:
253-62. April 1932.

"A Note on the Methodology of Teaching by the Film." Inter-
national Review of Educational Cinematography. 5 :772-5.
December 1933.

Gregory, W. M. (Director, Educational Museum, Cleveland)
"Modern Aids of Experiences in Learning." Eighth Year-
book. Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruc-
tion, N.E.A. 1935:102-3.

Weber, Joseph J. "A Suggested Methodology for the Use of
Informational Motion Pictures." Educational Screen. 7:8-
10. March 1928.

TEACHING WITH THE MOTION PICTURE 117

Hollis, A. P. (DeVry, Inc.) "A Tentative Plan for a Motion
Picture Lesson." In Motion Pictures for Instruction.
Chapter VI. p 146-61.

"Pedagogic Reforms and the Film." International Review of
Educational Cinematography. 5 :798-9. December 1933.

Dransfield, J. Edgar. (Principal, School No. 3, West New
York, NJ.) "Is There a Technique for the Use of Motion
Pictures in Schools?" Educational Screen. 6:121-2. March
1927.

The motion picture as an educational adjunct has probably
suffered more than any previous innovation through unskillful
enthusiasm. It did not develop as an educational factor, but
as a recreational, theatrical one. After a period of crude, slap-
stick comedy, someone saw the educational possibility in bringing
the living world into the schoolroom. The film was then trans-
planted bodily from the theatre into the school, but it did not
fit since it was unpedagogical in arrangement and content, and
it appealed only to the attitude of entertainment.

Producers of educational films have developed a series of
films suited to the curriculum. But how are they used? Do
they arrive at the proper time for application to the particular
subject being studied, and for the particular topic of that sub-
ject? Or, do they come on a circuit system regardless of the
curriculum organization? How are the films selected? Who
does the selecting? How are they shown? To the particular
group studying the subject? To the school en masse? In the
classroom? In the auditorium? What is the attitude of the
pupils toward them? Entertainment? Interesting side line to
the regular work? A part of the classroom procedure with a.
learning attitude and open discussion?

These offer but a few questions to be answered by the
educator who is using educational movies in his school. They
are involved in a technique for the use of motion pictures in
schools.

It is amazing to find how little of technique there seems to
have developed. In the larger communities where there is an
established library of films, the schools are on a circuit. A school
is given a certain day for "movies" and pictures arrive on that
day. There is no adaptation to the curriculum, to class units,
or to the learning attitude. The pictures are shown after school

118 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

or at any auditorium period with as large a group as the room
will seat, participating. Entertainment develops as the sole
result. Many times the principal or other person in charge
does not know what picture is coming, has never reviewed it
and has had little or no choice in the selection of it. If the
picture of Yellowstone Park comes at the time that the grades
are studying the industries of New York State the school is
called to assembly and they see it.

More often than not, the equipment consists of only a large
powerful machine in a fireproof booth in the auditorium thereby
restricting at once the type of work and the quantity of work
to be done in that unit, requiring expert and licensed operators
before any work can be done. This alone results in increasing
costs to such extent that everything but mass work is out of
the question.

There seems to be no widespread tendency toward introduc-
tion of motion pictures in schools. There seems to be a decided
paucity of authoritative literature in the field. Very few institu-
tions for teacher training offer courses in a method for the use
of motion pictures, and the normal schools offer practically no
training for the classroom teacher-to-be. Is there a technique
for the use of motion pictures in schools?

Dransfield, J. Edgar. "A Technique for the Use of Motion
Pictures in Schools." Educational Screen. 7:165-8. April
1927.

The problems of motion picture use and projection must
be carefully studied in the light of their availability to the class-
room teacher. The teacher is often bound to a time schedule,
too busy to organize materials, untrained in the use of machines.
Yet administrators do not make provisions for these things
when they purchase expensive equipment.

To be educative in the sense that it teaches a specific thing
as does the textbook, the motion picture must be used in a
class unit, in the particular subject being taught and at the time
that it is taught. To show pictures on a circuit basis, when
they happen to come around, denies to them the value which
they contain and introduces the entertainment function which
is deadening to the educative value, except in a purely vicarious
sense.

TEACHING WITH THE MOTION PICTURE 119

The projection of slides or films must be reduced to a routine
arrangement whereby a minimum of time is spent in darkening
rooms and setting up the machine. A corner of the assembly
may be marked off with black curtains to permit a class to see
films in one part and other classes to be studying in other parts
of it. Most of the films shown in the class require small group
study.

Films in geography, history, nature study, or science must
be used as an adjunct to classroom teaching. When shown
immediately after the study, the facts will be clinched by the
visual image.

A desirable procedure for planning the use of films is to
insert in the schedule for the term the films which would be
helpful. The principal takes the schedule and attempts to comply
rather carefully with the requisitions. A film is not shown far
in advance of the study of the unit it covers, since there is no
opportunity for intelligent preparation.

Comment during the film showing is necessary, although
to a limited degree. This insures that the children will note the
important points of the lesson.

Winchell, Lawrence R. (Head, Visual Education Depart-
ment, Rutgers University) "What the Motion Picture Has
Accomplished for the Schools." School Executive. 51 :248-9.
February 1932.

Criteria for using the motion picture from the pupil's stand-
point :

1. Do the pupils look at the film for enjoyment, or is there
behind this a question for aid in solving their problem?

2. Do the pupils accept the motion picture at face value, or
do they make comparisons and weigh value? Do they check
with textbook statements ?

3. Are children's reports fragmentary, or do they organize
their observations into cause and effect, relation to other informa-
tion, the basis for a problem, or something similar showing
thought in their answers ?

4. Do the pupils see visual material of their own, analyze
it, or evaluate it and offer it in class? Do they do independent
thinking when such is shown ?

5. Do the pupils have definite problems in mind, the answer
to which they expect from the film ?

120 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

6. Does the film material fit the work being done by the
class ? Is extraneous material shown ?

7. Are doubtful points explained as the film is shown?
Are explanations pertinent?

8. Is follow-up work carefully planned? Does it sum-
marize what was shown and link it with other class work?

Criteria for the teacher's evaluation of her procedure:

1. Have I carefully previewed the film so that I can meet
any situation that may arise?

2. Is everything in readiness so that a minimum of time is
spent between the introduction and the pictures ?

3. Is the lesson well planned? A stereotyped plan for use
with every picture will cause the lesson to be a bore rather than
a pleasure.

Following are some suggested methods, but the effectiveness
of use is dependent on the enthusiasm of the teacher and the
type of material.

A. Show the picture through without comment. Discussion
should follow the film and there should be a second showing on
the following day for clearing up misconceptions.

B. Show the picture in units to fit topic of discussion. The
film may be stopped at end of units and discussions carried on.
Stimulate interest in the lesson before the film showing.

C. Plan films as an integral part of the course of study,
but they should not be formal.

D. Unless the element of motion is necessary, motion pic-
tures are not necessary. The teacher must discriminate.

E. It is important that interest be carried further than
just the initial spurt which dies out soon after. Stories, charts,
cartoons, pictures and motion pictures are all effective means
of stimulating interest. The last, because they give life, color,
atmosphere and personality, and maintain interest for a longer
period.

F. Though the motion picture has a peculiar niche in the
wall of visual aids, we must not blind ourselves to the fact that
it is not always practicable.

Horn, Aaron. "A Neglected Aspect of the Educational Film/'
Educational Screen. 6:411-12. November 1927.

The motion picture has been thought of as "the raw materials
of instruction otherwise inaccessible to the teacher," but its
organization into the teaching unit should be left largely to the

TEACHING WITH THE MOTION PICTURE 121

teacher. The chief concern of educators has been the content
of the film. Is the content acceptable in the course of study?
Does it correlate with specific classroom work? Can the indi-
vidual scenes of the picture be organized about a specific lesson
aim?

Although this aspect is important and worthy of consider-
ation, there is another which has been suppressed. A motion
picture should furnish more than the raw materials of instruction
it should furnish as far as it can the organization of the
lesson as well.

This makes of the film more than an aid, it is a directive
agency in itself. This attitude recognizes that the film may
possibly furnish a better organization for some lessons involving
old perceptions than could a verbal method.

This does not mean that with the organization of the film
into teaching units the teacher will eventually be displaced. As
long as individual differences among pupils exist, it will remain
impossible to dispense instruction from celluloid or paper
without necessary adaptation made by an educated teacher.

This screen language has arisen as a secondary means of
expressing thought in a definite symbolism. It does not, nor
will it ever, challenge the position of verbal language. It is,
however, an invaluable supplement to it. It has a field of
expression which, while at present infinitely narrower than that
of verbal language, overlaps it at many points. It has displayed
a power to direct the thought processes into channels which are
almost completely foreign to verbal language. It may possibly
be able to serve at some points as a check upon the vagaries of
thought by ''sub-vocal or vocal speech."

Sexauer, Myrtle (Frick Training School, Pittsburgh, Pa.)
"Some Uses of Pictures." Educational Screen. 12:58-9.
February 1933.

Some uses of pictures are :

1. A group of carefully chosen pictures may be used for
orientation or a reconnaissance survey. In such a case there
would be a fairly large number of pictures. Care should be
exercised to choose several pictures showing the most important
kinds of activities and only a few showing the activities of less
importance; this will help the child place emphasis upon an

122 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

interpretation of the activities that are characteristic of the
region, rather than lose himself in the details of minor activities.
The relationships suggested by pictures used in this way should
be further strengthened by maps, other pictures, and reading.

2. A motivation lesson based upon an intensive study of
one or two pictures showing activities that are characteristic of
a region is an interesting way of introducing a unit. Such
ideas should likewise be strengthened by maps, statistics, and
reading.

3. Pictures may be used to introduce a new concept, espe-
cially if the understanding of the concept would involve a
lengthy word-picture.

4. Pictures can be used as a problem-raising and problem-
solving device, and no use of pictures is of greater value than
this. Intensive picture-study often reveals disconcerting data
and helps the child raise worthwhile problems. If the child uses
the suggestions in the picture to help solve the problem he
raised, he is reading out of a picture suggested relationships of
man's activities to his natural environment. If he uses another
picture or another source of information to help solve the
problem, he is reading into the picture suggested relationships.
This use of pictures readily trains the child, not only to raise
good thought questions, but to seek their solution, first in the
picture itself and then in other sources of information.

5. Pictures may be used as a check upon information gained
from maps, graphs or statistics, and reading, or vice versa.

6. Pictures may be used as a testing device. Tests take
on a form of definite teaching when pictures are used as a
source of information, and they change from the dreaded formal
tests to ones the children enjoy.

Hollinger, J. A. (Director of Nature Study and Visualiza-
tion, Pittsburgh, Pa.) "How to Teach with Motion Pic-
tures." Ohio Schools. ll:ll. January 1933.

When motion pictures are used in the classroom they should
be integral parts of lesson plans. A motion picture may afford
the major part of specific content material, conveying most of
the information to be presented and stimulating reflective think-
ing along various lines; or it may occupy a minor position in
the lesson plan, merely illustrating points that might not be
made clear to the learner in any other way. Motion pictures

TEACHING WITH THE MOTION PICTURE 123

should not be expected to do all for the learner. Skillful teach-
ing, with motion pictures as aids, is essential.

When a motion picture occupies a major position in a teach-
ing plan the procedure should be somewhat as follows:

1. In introducing the ideas contained in the picture to pro-
vide proper mental set or desire to learn, the teacher may, before
presenting the picture :

A. Ask a few leading questions

B. Stimulate some discussion among the pupils

C. Conduct directed or supervised study

D. Give a short introductory talk

1. This may be illustrated by means of

(a) flat pictures or photographic prints, (b)
stereographs, (c) lantern slides, (d) charts,
maps, etc.

2. Give a pre-test when a motion picture is presented as a
whole.

A. To fix attention upon the important ideas in the
picture

B. To stimulate a desire to know or to develop skill

3. Present the motion picture immediately after the pre-test
(A reel of 35mm. or 16mm. film requires from twelve to fifteen
minutes for presentation.)

4. Follow immediately the presentation of the picture with
a test to determine how much has been learned. This test
should be the same as the pre-test.

5. Compare pupils' individual scores made on the pre-test
with those made on the follow-up test.

A. Determine from those scores what ideas need further
emphasis by :

1. Repeating parts of the picture as needed

2. Definite reading assignment or other research

3. Class discussion (socialized procedure)

4. Questions and answers

6. Reorganize ideas in review

A. Pupils' reports

B. Teacher's comments

C. Pupils' statements of their own conclusions

D. Notebooks

7. Final test (mastery test)

124 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

When the motion picture occupies a minor position in the
development of a learning unit it may be presented either in
parts or as a whole.

1. Only that part of the picture should be used at a given
time which illustrates the particular points under consideration.
This may be 20 feet, 50 feet, 100 feet, more or less. For
review, show the whole film.

2. The entire picture may be presented as a preview at the
proper time in a development plan.

A. When used in this way the teacher should be careful
to avoid listless, passive reception by pupils.

1. There should be intellectually active attitudes.

2. Pupils should be held responsible for ideas pre-
sented by the motion picture and for reflective
thinking stimulated by it.

Gow, Ronald (Altrincham, England) "The Educational
Use of the Cinematograph." Educational Screen. 6:71-3.
February 1927.
The value of the cinema is limited, but this value is so

high that it justifies the purchase and acquisition by each modern

school of films and equipment.

Tests and results: There is no lack of statistical evidence
that lessons taught with the aid of the cinema are superior in
result to those without, but there is a tendency in these tests
to ignore the real function of the cinema. Examinations and the
allotting of marks seem the only way we have devised for
testing the results of teaching and the scientific investigator must
concern himself with facts assimilated and properly reproduced
in order to estimate the value of any particular method. If,
however, the method under examination is not designed for,
or unsuited to the teaching of facts, to apply the usual tests is
obviously unscientific.

Moreover, the teaching of facts, important though it may
be for the purposes of examination, plays a small part in real
education. It is unfair to claim a certain value for the cinema
and to justify it by testing a completely different value.

TEACHING WITH THE MOTION PICTURE 125

Unzicker, S. P. (Chairman, Visual Education Committee,
Wisconsin Education Association) "Classroom Technique in
the Use of Visual Aids." In Visual Education. Wisconsin
Education Association. November 1935. Chapter V. p. 19-25.

After carefully selecting the appropriate visual aids that cor-
relate with the regular classroom work, it is necessary for the
teacher to preview the visual aids and plan the method of
presentation.

The preview of visual materials will reveal specific details
and indicate changes that should be made in the lesson plan.
Such changes may be any one or more of the following:

1. Furnish additional information to enable the pupils to
make the connections and see the relationships between the
illustration and previous teaching.

2. Develop an introduction to the visual aids.

3. Devise intermittent or running comment.

4. Select or eliminate definite parts or details of the visual
aids if such changes will provide better learning conditions.

THE RELATION OF TECHNIQUE TO STEPS IN
LEARNING PROCESS

(These relations are reciprocal, interacting on each other)
Visual Aids Technique Elements in Learning Process

Selecting visual aids Kinds of impulses

Intensity of impressions
Readiness (stage of development)

Preparations for use of Intensity of ) Forceful launching
visual aids impressions ) Interest factors

) Mind set

Readiness ) Continuity of

(pupil) ) impressions

Use of visual aids in Connecting the new with the old
teaching Strengthening previous impressions

Interaction and correlation of ideas (pupil

activity)

Pupil expression (discussions, quizzes, proj-
ects)

"Resolutions Adopted by the International Congress of the
Teaching and Educational Film. First Commission,
Methodology of Instructional Films." International Review
of Educational Cinematography. 6:335. May 1934.

As to the methods to be used for school films, the Congress
states :

126 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

1. That the use of the cinema should not interfere with
the educational influence of the teacher, nor with the effect of
his words. It is he who should put the questions, explain,
comment, inspire and direct the activity and the response of
the pupils.

2. That consequently the teaching film should not be sound
or talking, but a silent film in which the commentary is made
by the teacher except where the sound or talking film may
usefully complete and strengthen the visual impression.

3. That the use of the film should not induce a passive
absorption of rapidly succeeding scenes, but that it should be
used to stimulate the activity of the child in every kind of
scholastic work.

4. That during the projection of the school film the teacher
should have the opportunity of intervening, in order to illustrate
points which require special explanation and that he should take
into account the fact that lantern slides are very often very
useful, either by themselves or together with motion pictures.

5. That the subjects to be used for school films should be
part of an organized didactic plan, which has been previously
studied by pedagogues and approved by the school authorities
in accordance with the school curriculum and which may be
modified according to new possibilities which the use of the
film presents.

Johnson, Robert S. (Acting Executive Secretary, Depart-
ment of Visual Instruction, University of California,
Berkeley) "Use of Film in Education." Sierra Educational
News. 29:41-2. March 1933.

There are two places in the school where motion pictures
can be used to advantage. These are the auditorium and the
classroom. Each place requires its peculiar type of film and
peculiar method of presentation.

1. The film as a teaching aid in the classroom:
The film must be regarded as an aid to, not as a substitute
for verbal instruction. Far from relieving the teacher, it re-
quires more planning and more ingenuity than if the class were
conducted without it.

A. The motion picture must be selected to aid in solving
a particular problem.

TEACHING WITH THE MOTION PICTURE 127

A film is used incorrectly in a classroom when
it is shown merely because it is related vaguely to the
general course.

The use of a film because it may be obtained free
of rental charge is false economy, when its applica-
tion to the curriculum is indirect.

A film which might be valuable in one class might
waste time if shown in another class in the same
school. The presence of a film in the school should
not influence other teachers to use it when not needed.

B. The peculiar nature of the motion picture assigns
to it a particular function as a visual aid.

The film is used best either to introduce or to
summarize a problem requiring from several days to
several weeks of study. Sometimes it may be used
effectively both at the beginning and end of the study
of a certain problem.

C. The showing of the film must be timed accurately.

To show a film a few days earlier or later than
its proper time in solving the problem destroys much
of its value. When administrative procedure requires
a change in date for showing the film, the lesson
plan must be altered so that the films may be used
profitably at the available times, or they should be
eliminated completely.

D. The film and verbal instruction must be integrated.

Teachers' manuals which accompany films should
be carefully studied by the classroom teacher well
in advance of the film showing.

E. Special effort must be made to fix in the memories
of the students the material presented by the film.

The film so rapidly presents a great amount of
material that the memory must be given assistance.
It may often be found advantageous to stop the film
several times while projecting. Discussion, quizzes,
and themes are several devices which may be used
to aid the students to retain the knowledge presented.

2. The film as educational or cultural entertainment in the
auditorium :

A. A well-balanced schedule should be made for such
entertainments.

B. These programs should be as timely as possible,
especially with respect to holiday programs.

128 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

C. Subjects for programs should be grouped and the
programs follow each other as orderly as possible.
Hit-or-miss ordering should be avoided.

D. In general, industrial films make poor auditorium
programs.

E. All teachers should be given in advance a schedule of
auditorium programs. Classroom work should be
related to these programs wherever possible.

Calo, Giovanni (Professor of Pedagogy, University of
Florence) "Cinema and Teaching Methods." International
Review of Educational Cinematography. 6 :353-8. May 1934.

The greatest criticism of the motion picture from the point of
view of method is that the use of luminous projections in
schools constitutes in certain respects an improvement of the
purely intuitive method, rather than the active method which
is now in the ascendant in didactics and the contemporary
school. This does not imply that films have nothing in common
with the active method, but the interest and curiosity which may
be aroused through the projected image is active in a wide sense.
But, where it is possible to see everything, then there is less
field left and less impulse is available to stir the fancy and
allow it to have a free form of expression.

What is undoubtedly true in every sense and in all circum-
stances is that the motion picture, especially if it becomes an
end in itself, when it is not subordinated and enclosed, so to
speak, in a teaching method which exists outside of it, and does
not allow it to act alone on the child's spirit, inevitably tends
to draw with it in a kind of fascination the child's interest,
leaving it much less capacity for personal examination, control,
self-criticism and various mental elaborations in a much greater
degree than the lantern slide. What is especially excluded by the
very nature of luminous projection, is the child's initiative, its
oral capacity for work, its tactile and muscular experience of
the object, its possibilities for "doing it," modifying it and
making use of it. It is this which constitutes the essence of
the active method, especially in the lower teaching grades, and
to a certain extent and in certain forms and subjects, also in
the higher grades.

TEACHING WITH THE MOTION PICTURE 129

Practical Suggestions for Using Films

1. Luminous projections should not be used in schools for
those objects which can be adequately observed in
reality.

2. Preference should be given to a graphic or plastic repre-
sentation of the objects taught, unless there is some
real distinct advantage to be gained in showing the
particular reality in movement, or unless it be deemed
advisable to obtain with fixed projection special effects
for understanding.

3. The use of both lantern slides and motion pictures ought
to be much restricted in elementary schools, and increas-
ingly employed in the higher grades. Documentary
films in the wide meaning of the term, and pictures
having a recreational-educational scope could be used
with a certain frequency and periodicity even in elemen-
tary classes and in pre-scholastic institutions.

4. In general, the use of the luminous image as a visual
aid ought not to be too frequent if only to prevent the
pupils' acquiring harmful mental habits and submitting
to hygienic disadvantages. The film should not be
shown for long on each occasion of a projection, in
order that it may not interfere with the teacher's regular
teaching and risk causing a confusion of the real aims
of instruction.

5. The teacher's word should always set forth the problem
which may later be illustrated by the film giving the
pupil cognitions and ideas beyond those immediately
before his eyes. Sub-titles, explanatory comment, and
printed matter should not be used with children.

6. The use of lantern slides should be considered preferable
to motion pictures as an educational means for increas-
ing the child's powers of observation.

7. The teacher ought to regulate the rhythm in motion
picture projections, and be able to repeat certain parts,
stop the projector and insert slides between the running
off of the film, so that the best possible advantage may
be taken of the visual instruction.

8. Teaching films should always be produced with the
collaboration of pedagogues, according to the educational
purpose they are intended to serve.

9. Better than complete darkness is provision for a small
illuminated zone near each pupil to enable him to take
notes or read.

130 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

10. It is necessary to obtain with all possible means the
active collaboration of the child and draw its active
attention to objects thrown on the screen, such as graphs,
models, etc.

11. The pupil ought always to be invited to make a verbal or
written reconstruction of what he has seen after the
projection.

At a recent meeting of the Department of Visual Instruc-
tion, Moore made some very worth-while suggestions with
respect to the art of questioning students after showing a
film or slide. He stresses the technique of "thought question-
ing" and suggests certain types into which such questions
might be classified.

Moore, H. K. (Thomas A. Edison High School, Cleveland,
Ohio) "Test Questions of the Thought' Type in Visual
Education." Educational Screen. 16:113-14. April 1937.

Following are some suggestions for formulating questions
to be used with pictures to produce thought instead of teaching
facts. This classification is not systematic, but is an expedient:

1. Organization of material. This involves questions which
develop the ability to exclude the irrelevant and to select just
those things necessary for answering the question.

2. Meeting of situations. The solution of a problem re-
quires an examination of the situation in which one finds him-
self, the calling up of various possible solutions, the testing of
these solutions, and finally their verification. Strictly speaking,
this classification includes all the others but here it will be
restricted to problems of the 'if type, such as: "If you lived
in New England in 1630 and wanted some fuel to keep you
warm, what would you do?" The student would select the
answer from one of the following: phone for a ton of coal, light
the gas, chop some wood, use an electric stove, or light the oil
stove. This question would be based on the motion picture of
life of the Puritans.

3. Comparisons. Thought is required when one compares
the things seen in the film with knowledge he already has, or
when data from two or more films are considered together. A
question of the type, "Which of the following employments

TEACHING WITH THE MOTION PICTURE 131

usually offers the greatest independence? miner, farmer, factory
worker, cotton picker, engineman," would suggest thinking by
comparison.

4. Applications. These include questions which involve the
personal or civic application of data, such as

Which one of these do you think best describes the Columbus
of the film you saw? wavering, perseverant, pleasant, cautious,
prosperous.

The distinction is made between thought and memory ques-
tions as follows:

1 . We think with things that we have remembered ; facts
are the material of reasoning.

2. Thought problems studied by a class may become memory
questions on a test.

3. All "why" questions are not thought questions ; some
"what" questions are of the thought type.

4. A question might require considerable reasoning for
one pupil, and mere recall for another.

5. A question might require thought in grade seven, and
mere memory in grade eight.

Some criteria for selecting thought questions are:

1. The question should be worth thinking about. The
teacher should examine each question and then ask himself:
"So what?" or "What of it?"

2. Definite application to the pupil's own problems or to
community problems should be made whenever possible.

3. The original selection of material for study is important.
It is easier to find thought questions in live material than to
strain at promoting useful thought about useless data. The
question, "So what?" might be asked of the material itself. 3

4. Those who are successful in solving their own problems
are more likely to be helpful in leading others to think.

5. Visual education material is more than just another way
of stuffing a pupil with information; it is more than a supple-
ment to other sources of subject content; it can be a stimulus to
thought.

By way of summary, then, the combined judgment of the
writers represented in the preceding pages includes the follow-
ing suggestions for using films in school :

3 This leads to a consideration of criteria for selecting materials, for which see
Part Three.

132 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

A. With respect to selection and the purposes to be served:

1. The teacher must have a clear idea of the contribu-
tion of the film in relation to the unit as a whole.

2. There must be provision for previewing by the teacher.
A teacher's guide is no substitute for the preview, but
should be used as an aid in planning the film lesson.

3. Films are very effective as an orientation of a unit, since
they contain the concrete ideas basic to any organized
thinking or reflection.

4. Projected pictures should be used only when recourse
to the actual object or identical experience is im-
practicable.

5. Teachers should use visual materials in accordance with
their philosophy of education.

6. Sound in motion pictures should only be used when it
is necessary to the concept to be conveyed. Inter-
polated music is often unnecessary.

7. Teachers should have an established set of criteria from
which to select films and other materials.

8. The use of visual sensory aids need not wait upon the
expenditure of much money, if any. By developing
keen powers of observation in the pupils many experi-
ences may be gained at little cost.

9. The use of visual aids is not an isolated teaching method.

B. With respect to methodology :

1. Pictures are not a substitute for language, and verbal
expression should be encouraged wherever possible.

2. Picture lessons should be followed by activities of various
types, such as reading, manual activity, sketching, writ-
ing, dramatization, and so on. If a film is worth show-
ing at all, it is worth following up.

3. The routine of presenting a film should be such as to
eliminate completely any distractions.

4. Comments during the showing of a film will vary greatly
depending on the film, on the class, and on the objectives
to be achieved.

5. The teacher should express verbally to her pupils the
purpose of the film showing.

6. Films may be shown in their entirety or in part, depend-
ing upon the objectives of the lesson, and upon the pupils'
background.

7. The teacher should vary his technique in using visual
materials, and avoid routine procedure.

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USE 133

8. The questions presented in the informal discussion
period following a film showing should be as concrete
and as pertinent as possible.

C. With respect to the preparation of the teacher:

1. Teachers desiring to improve their technique in using
visual aids must be willing to give serious thought and
ample time to planning, evaluating, and reporting their
experiences.

2. It is very desirable for teachers to undertake the pro-
duction of a simple educational film which will conform
to accepted psychological and pedagogical standards.
Such an activity will better enable teachers to evaluate
existing films, and to clarify their own criteria for
selecting educational films .

II. TEACHING WITH VISUAL AIDS IN THE
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

In this section the digests have been arranged according
to the subject in which the material was developed. Where
reference was made to other subjects or levels of instruction,
these have been mentioned in the index. Although an at-
tempt has been made to be as specific as possible further
analysis is difficult, for, as has already been pointed out, the
articles are often lacking in specifics.

In reading the following summaries of lesson units, it
would be well to bear in mind the extent to which the writer
has answered the questions listed in the introduction. 4

From these articles it may be deduced that visual mate-
rials may be used in practically every subject of the cur-
riculum; that with intelligent use they are suitable for a
progressive, activity type of school, as well as for the formal
type of curriculum; that teachers are convinced of the value
of using visual materials, but that the best procedure is still
to be determined by experimentation.

The most practical type of guidance with respect to the
use of motion pictures on various grade levels and in many

4 Pages 111-12.

134 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

fields of learning is provided in the new book by Brunstetter.
It is hoped that this book will be made available to every
teacher seriously interested in improving his teaching tech-
nique with motion pictures. For this reason, the summary
of the book which is given here is very brief, merely indicat-
ing the areas in which illustrations are provided.

Comments by classroom teachers regarding the value of
films are found in the summaries which follow. The Visual
Education Committee of the New York State Association of
Elementary Principals has listed some of the comments made
by teachers in that state. The Bulletin containing these com-
ments should similarly be in the possession of supervisors
and teachers.

The Willey article summarizes the results of an investiga-
tion in which the teachers of the University of Denver Train-
ing School cooperated with their principal to determine the
value of the silent film as a teaching aid. An examination
of the judgments of these classroom teachers will reveal
many significant points of view which were developed after
careful deliberation and practice. The active participation of
the pupils in many of the lessons gives further testimony of
the intelligent way in which these teachers organized the use
of motion pictures to fit the curriculum of a modern school.

Teachers in the primary and non-reading grades have
expressed the need for guidance in using motion pictures
for their children. The digests of articles by Brerault, Eads,
Keliher, Cook, the Pittsburgh, Pa. Handbook, Lampe, and
Rowland will furnish concrete suggestions for using motion
pictures on that level of instruction.

Poole reports her findings from an investigation in a
school in Akron, Ohio to determine the effectiveness of vari-
ous teaching techniques with silent films. Her conclusions
are interesting.

Dorris applies the use of motion pictures to her phi-
losophy that no subject should be taught in any grade as a

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USE 135

thing apart, but rather as a contributing factor of the great
mass of valuable knowledge which tends to enlighten and
enrich life.

The use of Eastman Teaching Films in primary and
elementary nature study, social science, elementary geog-
raphy, reading, health, and history has been interestingly
described in a report by Baumeister. The reader is referred
to the original article.

Emery makes the point, which a few other writers have
stated in one connection or another, that certain motion pic-
tures lend themselves admirably to "sensitizing" pupils to
conditions prevailing in various life situations. After show-
ing industrial films, such as Through Oil Lands of Europe
and Africa, Hunting Big Game zvith a Camera, and others,
the author concludes that these films were successful in im-
parting attitudes and social values which cannot be measured
by objective tests. It is this intangible influence of the motion
picture which research workers have so far neglected. He
considers this a most important aspect, and one which
teachers should emphasize to a larger extent.

The article by Dieffenbach describes how he has made the
use of motion pictures in his school a socially significant
activity for interested pupils.

In conclusion, the point might be made that teachers will
develop effective techniques for using new materials of in-
struction only insofar as constructive supervision and guid-
ance is provided by the administration. Yet administrators
will make provision for supervision only insofar as teachers
express interest. It is obvious that pressure must come
simultaneously from both ends to achieve maximum efficiency
from the educational motion picture.

Brunstetter, M. R. (Teachers College, Columbia University,
N.Y.) How to Use the Educational Sound Film. University
of Chicago Press. 1937. 174p.
This book is based on studies made since 1935 in school

systems and schools of varying size, so selected as to furnish

136 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

a cross-section of the educational field, and where an extended
experimental program was set up to discover effective teaching
and administrative procedures of an audio-visual program.

The chapter on "Teaching Purposes for Which the Sound
Film May Be Used" contains the following suggestions:

1. Teacher preparation for the use of the sound film.

The skillful teacher should consider the following points
when preparing to use sound films:

A. What are the objectives of the unit?

B. Which sound films will be most helpful in achieving
these purposes?

C. How well do I know this particular film ?

D. What supplementary printed materials are available
to help me in its use ?

E. At what point in the unit shall I introduce the film ?

F. What do I expect it to accomplish at that point?

G. What activities and projects might be started as an
outgrowth of the first showing?

H. How many times shall I use the film, and for what
purposes ?

2. Some of the purposes for which the sound film may
be used are:

A. To provide a basis for reading material

B. To aid in spelling and language work

C. To stimulate interest in art work

D. To add to our "store of information"

E. To stimulate group feeling and cooperation

F. To develop further the reference habit

G. To serve as a basis for arithmetic

3. The place of the sound film in the unit of instruction:

A. To initiate a unit of instruction

B. To present the facts and concepts of a unit of instruc-
tion

C. To enrich or extend a unit

D. To provide a rapid survey or general background

E. To summarize or review

F. For club programs and special projects

G. For assembly programs

H. For teacher-training projects

I. For parent-teacher and other community group meet-
ings

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USE 137

In the third chapter, "Techniques of Teaching with Sound
Films," case studies are cited to illustrate the following prob-
lems:

1. Frequency of showing a film.

2. How to introduce a film in the day's lesson to avoid
excessive motivation.

3. How to adapt a film to the current interests and capacities
of a class.

4. Varying techniques for manipulating the film showing.

5. Some techniques for following up the film showing.

An analysis of the ways in which sound films were used
under many conditions reveals the following shortcomings in
technique :

Faulty procedure in film lessons, in general, may be at-
tributed to poor administrative procedures, or to a lack of
familiarity with the medium on the part of the teacher.

1. Where direct teaching through the use of the film is to
take place, it is probably unwise to show more than one or two
reels.

2. It is undesirable as well to use a group of more or less
unrelated films at one sitting.

3. Showing of a film at the improper psychological moment
is another poor teaching technique.

4. A single showing of a film where repeated showings are
needed is poor teaching technique.

5. Too great dependence upon the teachers' manual
accompanying the film may lead to a very formal and uninterest-
ing lesson.

6. Some teachers fail to introduce the picture in its proper
setting.

7. Limiting the use of a film to a single occasion during the
lesson or unit is another shortcoming.

8. Poor selection of a picture for the lesson or unit is
exercised.

9. Aimless discussion is carried on after the film showing.

Committee on Educational Progress, Visual Aids Division.

Visual Aids in the Schools : A Report of Present Uses and
Suggestions for Improvement. New York State Association
of Elementary Principals. Bulletin IV. December 1935.

Following are some of the comments made by teachers to
the committee with respect to the use being made of motion
pictures in the classroom:

138 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

1. It makes geographical facts come to life. While showing
the film, I make comments as is necessary. After the film is
shown the children are questioned about it to determine what
new information is gained and to review facts with which they
should already be acquainted. In addition to this, I use the
film as a basis for oral and written English. It gives the children
something to tell about. It forms a good topic to use in writing a
friendly letter.

2. Children cannot fully appreciate the study of foreign
people and conditions by facts that are given in textbooks alone.
The 16mm. silent picture is an excellent means of presenting
information, and of great value in forming correct mental con-
cepts in the minds of the pupils. These films arouse thinking
on the part of the child.

3. Films function very effectively as an introduction to a
new topic which is not within the experience of the child, as
it stimulates interest in this new field of work.

4. Films develop the powers of observation on the part
of the pupils and make them eager to produce or recreate their
interpretations.

5. The film is most helpful in all kinds of geography, health
and nature instruction.

6. Our project was Japan. Several reading lessons were
given first, in which necessary vocabulary was developed and
associated with pictures of the text. At this time, children
decided to work out a Japanese village on the sand table. Here
I used a film dealing with Japanese life. I allowed the children
to view the entire film without comment. The following day they
viewed it again after having made an outline of the points to
look for which would help them in their plans.

7. We use films to introduce the study of transportation.

8. Films are shown whenever I feel that the child needs
something my words or still pictures cannot give him, for
instance, when studying the mining of coal and its uses by man,
when discussing the interdependence of the world today, when
trying to develop world-mindedness among the children who
might otherwise think the customs and costumes of other peoples
humorous.

9. I live in a section of the state which is far removed from
the ocean. Many of the children who are studying geography
and history have never seen the ocean, the ships that sail it,
or the beating of the surf. Motion pictures shown with a pro-
jector borrowed from a local man of prominence helped the
children in a way that only a person teaching in a situation
similar to mine can understand.

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USE 139

10. My children, who have been working on a clothing unit,
have used many films dealing with the evolution from seed to
cloth of many plants from which the raw materials are obtained.

11. We have been studying the foods and foodstuffs of the
nations of the world. Living as we do in an agricultural com-
munity, this unit has been of great interest to the children.
Motion pictures showing the raising of foodstuffs with which
they were unacquainted and their processing provided an eye-
opener to these children.

12. The Yale Chronicles of America Motion Pictures Series
has given us an understanding of the life and activities of the
men who founded, fought for, and developed our country that
no other medium has been able to provide.

13. Before we write a historical play as a group unit we
review as many motion pictures dealing with the period as we can
obtain. These we examine in the light of our research of a
reading and still picture nature. Discussions are frequent, as
points of disagreement as to events, customs, or other facts are
found. I use these disagreements to bring out the differences
between primary and secondary sources. Then we do our best
to determine the truth of the matter. A critical, analytical atti-
tude has resulted, as well as a habit of suspending judgment until
all evidence is in.

Willey, Gilbert S. (Professor of Education, Principal of
Training School, University of Denver) The Silent Film As
a Teaching Aid. Akin and Bagshaw, Inc. Denver, Colorado.
1935. 21p.

This project was carried on at the University of Denver
Elementary Training School to determine some values of the
silent film as a teaching aid. The school consists of eight
regular teachers who serve as critic teachers, twenty-five student
teachers, and nearly three hundred elementary pupils from
kindergarten through sixth grade. A total of 75 reels of edu-
cational films was used by the teaching staff during the four-
month period ending May 31, 1934. At the beginning of each
month a committee of two or three teachers selected the films
to be used during each of the following four weeks. Available
films were studied carefully and films were chosen which
appeared to correlate closely with the phases of subject matter
to be presented in the classrooms. The films were shown in a
room fully equipped for showing films. The schedule was de-
signed to give the children of each room opportunity to see at

140 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

least one film per week. Frequently the same children saw
two or three films per week, depending upon the number of
available films correlating with the course of study. At times
children of two or three rooms came together to see films of
general interest, such as Mount Vernon, or Abraham Lincoln.

No attempt was made to make a scientific experiment of the
project, nor were tests given to check on results. The purpose
of the project was to attempt to discover the various problems
involved in the effective use of films in the classroom, and con-
sequently teachers' judgments and reports were considered satis-
factory evidence. During the progress of the project, the
teachers kept notes on pupil reactions, and on various film
techniques which resulted in improved pupil responses.

Several faculty meeting discussions were centered around
techniques for effective use of the classroom film. These were
in the main an exchange of experiences on the part of the
staff members in the use of films.

At the close of the four-month period, each teacher was
asked to give her opinion of the film as a teaching aid under the
following five heads: (1) types of films found to be most
helpful; (2) how films may be used effectively to supplement
classroom teaching; (3) effective classroom techniques; (4)
values derived from the use of films; and (5) limitation of
films for effective classroom use.

The teachers used motion pictures effectively to supplement
classroom teaching in several ways: to terminate a study, to
introduce a new study, to follow a class discussion, to precede
a class discussion and thus furnish an enriched background,
as a quick means of review, as a graphic portrayal to reinforce
knowledge and understandings already gained.

The following statements were made concerning effective
teaching techniques in the use of motion pictures:

1. The teacher must be thoroughly familiar with the film
before permitting the pupils to see it.

2. The teacher should discuss with children in advance the
points to be looked for.

3. When possible, children should be prepared for the film
through discussions, stories, or still pictures.

4. The subject matter in films should correlate with the
classroom work, and films should be shown only as the need
arises.

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USE 141

5. As the film is shown, points of importance may be
stressed by the teacher. This depends somewhat upon the type
of film. It is possible for certain pupils to make a "preview"
of the film, and make comments as the class views it.

6. Certain films, given for purposes of appreciation, should
be run without comment. In cases of this kind, pupils must be
carefully prepared for the film. The technique is similar to
that of the appreciation lesson in art or music.

7. With some films it is profitable to stop the machine at
certain places for discussion, and then go back over parts of it
to observe points missed by a majority of the class.

8. With most films it is profitable to have discussions im-
mediately following the showing, or within the near future.
Frequently these discussions call for a re-showing of the film
to "clinch" certain understandings.

9. Children should be held responsible for information
gained through the film. This eliminates the idea that motion
pictures are for entertainment only, and gives the pupils a better
attitude toward the film as an educative agency.

10. Pupils should not be shown films too frequently or for
too long a period. If properly prepared, pupils are at a com-
paratively high state of concentration while viewing a film, and
fatigue will cause a waning of interest within a relatively short
time.

Some of the ways in which motion pictures were correlated
with classroom work in various subjects and in many grades are
briefly summarized as follows:

1. Beavers. The teacher used the story of beavers from
a book on forest friends. The children related their experiences
and also gave information which they had relative to the beaver.
The teacher read to them the story. She then introduced the
film, Beavers and asked them to look for those things they
knew, and to be ready to point out the new things they found
out. A conversation followed (not directly) the showing of the
film. Much interest was manifested throughout.

2. Story of Milk. The teacher reminded the children of
their study about food in 4B. She told them that they would
get to see a film about milk one of their most important foods.
Teacher evaluation states that such a film be used with other
films on the same subject, since it only deals with the use of
milk as a food.

142 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

3. Events in the Life of Lincoln. Children were asked to
see in the film on Lincoln's life those things which they had
read about and seen in programs for Lincoln's birthday. The
motion picture used was criticized by the teacher for not having
enough of Lincoln's childhood in it, and not enough of his
acts of kindness.

4. Washington. The showing of the film followed con-
versation, stories, and use of pictures in the classroom. Many
of the places where Washington spent his boyhood, as shown in
the film, may be visited today. This film was also found wanting
in scenes of the early life of Washington.

5. Some Friendly Birds. This film was used to show how
birds build nests in the spring, and how they care for their young.

6. Children of Other Lands. Films used relating directly
to the social science subject matter of these lands were: Houses
of the Arctic, Wanderers of the Arabian Desert, The Nether-
lands, Houses of the Tropics, and The Little Wood Carver. The
children's attention was directed to the particular points of
interest, to especially appropriate action, to significant scenes or
backgrounds. Frequently the teacher listed four or five questions
on the board which the film would answer.

During the showing, the films were frequently stopped in
order to direct attention to a significant point, or to provide
opportunity for discussion. The films were discussed freely
in the home classroom. For instance, after seeing the film
on the houses of the Arctic one pupil asked, "But after those
dreadful storms, how do they push open the ice doors when the
snow has banked up all against them ?"

This led to discussion, further reading, and a re-showing
of the film for a possible answer. The children are not asked
to write reports of the film. I think that knowing that an expres-
sion has to be written interferes with the child's spontaneous
and whole-hearted entering into it for the sheer interest in the
activity itself.

In studying Indian life, we found these films helpful: Na-
vajo Indian Life, Little Indian Weaver, The Indian Village
at the Century of Progress, and Santa Fe. Such comments as
these from the children followed the showings.

"I've read and read about looms, but I never have understood before
how a real one looks."

"I was interested in the clothes. Even when they wore modern
clothes they always had something Indian mixed with them."

"I'd like to see that picture a few more times and then maybe I'd
understand how they weave the design in."

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USE 143

7. Cotton. The film, Cotton: Dixie's Great Crop helped
to make more vivid the processes of soil preparation for cotton,
planting, gathering, and methods of delivering cotton to the
gin. The pupils were prepared for the film by asking them to
observe the following three points as they viewed the film:
What did you like best in the picture? What was the most
interesting thing shown? Why? Look for something new that
has not been found in our social science reference material.

The parts they liked best, according to their responses, were :
picking the cotton; man carrying bag hitched to suspenders;
weighing of cotton; comparison of amount of cotton grown in
U.S. with other countries.

The most interesting scenes in the film to the children were:
Negro living quarters, where they worked, and the duties of
the supervisor ; the spreading of poison by airplane to kill the
boll weevil ; and kinds of harrow used in cultivating fields.

New facts obtained through the film were : weighing of cotton
at the end of each row in order to learn how much each row
produced; seeing the boll weevil attempting to enter the bud
of cotton; how cotton is cared for day and night; and how soil
is prepared for growing cotton.

8. Conquering the Desert. This film is a picture of giant
cacti being cleared from the Arizona desert in the Salt River
Valley, the harvesting of the cotton crop by the Mexicans, and
the shipping of cotton to Connecticut. The entire process of
carding, spinning, and weaving is given in detail. This picture
was shown to the class when the study of weaving and dyeing
was begun. The film aroused the pupils' interest in weaving.
It correlated nicely with our study, as one father had brought
into the room a box of samples showing the various stages in
the spinning process. Following are some questions asked by
the class after the film showing :

Why do they not spin cotton by hand ?
Why did the man stretch the cloth ?
How did he stretch it so far ?
Why was the cloth so strong ?

Why did the bush move when the ground was being cleared?
Why didn't they make thread before they wound it into
balls of cotton?

Why are two strands of thread put together?

How is thread colored ?

Why did they press cotton in a box ?

What was the thing pressing the seeds?

How did the people cook on such small stoves ?

Why was the Egyptian on the rocks ?

Why was the picture shown in Egypt first ?

144 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Brerault, Jean. "Report on the Use of the Cinema in Primary
Teaching." International Review of Educational Cinema-
tography. 6:429-41. June 1934.

1. Place for projection. If the film is to be part of the
lesson, it is important that it be shown at the opportune moment
in the classroom. If the pupils are obliged to get up and go to
another room to see the picture, it is clear that the rhythm of
the lesson will be broken.

2. Film showing. The technique will vary with the purposes
to be achieved. One or more showings may be needed, depend-
ing upon the subject at hand.

3. Comment. It may appear advisable to comment while
a film is being run. This is an error, however, which in prac-
tice will not fail to give unsatisfactory results. Verbal comment,
when used, must be made at just the right moment, and not a
second earlier or later. The teacher should usually make his
comments before the projection rather than afterwards.

4. Sound. Where explanations are needed to accompany
a film, the addition of sound is more efficacious than the teacher's
words. The use of natural sounds, such as cries of animals,
noises of machines, etc. may justifiably be made for primary
teaching. But a teaching sound film ought not be 100 per cent
sound. Unlike the situation in the theatre, it is unnecessary to
fill in silent intervals with music.

5. Explanatory notes. Teachers' guides can be very help-
ful when they contain a description of the scenes, with sub-
titles or spoken comments. They may suggest the form of
lesson and place in the curriculum in which the film might be
used, but merely suggest. Such a manual might also give the
circumstances under which the picture was made, its date, and
some episodes connected with the shooting of the film. It might
also give a list of lantern slides for supplementation.

Eads, Laura Krieger (Erpi Picture Consultants, Inc.)
"Utilization of Talking Pictures in the Primary Grades."
In A Program for the Utilization of Audio-Visual Teaching
Aids in Evansville, Indiana. Erpi. N.Y. 1935. p. 66-71.

Some general principles underlying the use of sound films for
primary instruction are :

1. The talking picture is most effective in the primary
grades when it is used as an integral part of a broad and well-

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USE 145

planned unit of instruction and when it is well integrated with
classroom activities.

2. The talking picture should be presented several times
during the study, at various phases of the unit of instruction.

3. Each child should have in mind a specific objective for
each film presentation.

4. The teacher should have a distinct purpose for presenting
the film each time.

5. Before the first presentation it is important to introduce
the unit to the pupils.

6. Especially after the first presentation, the children
should be allowed to discuss the pictured material immediately.

7. Unusual types of photography should be explained to
the children.

8. The filmed objects and series of scenes should be ex-
plained whenever necessary for a correct interpretation on the
part of each child.

9. Do not teach the pictured material alone.

10. It is essential that the teacher be thoroughly familiar
with the film before beginning a unit.

Keliher, Alice (Progressive Education Association, N.Y.)
"Visual Aids in Beginning Reading." American Childhood.
14:no.7:16-18. March 1929.

Excursions, classroom exhibits, lantern slides, photographs,
stereographs, and pets may all be used effectively to provide a
common experience to all the children and stimulate their
interest in learning to read. It is preferable to use the actual
experience whenever practicable, and resort to the pictured repre-
sentation of it only when the actual experience is beyond reach.

If the teacher shows the proper degree of interest in visual
aid material she will find that the children will never tire of
bringing materials to school. Children will bring to school those
things for which they care most, and from which much reading
should evolve.

Cook, Gertrude S. (Edison School, Pasadena, California)
"How We Are Fed." Educational Screen. 10 :73-6. March
1931.

In a first grade class the work in social studies was enriched
as far as possible by the use of field trips, specimens, illustrated
stories, and a motion picture.

146 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

For example, the unit on wheat was introduced by a specimen
of a head of wheat. The processes of growing wheat in former
times and in foreign countries, and how wheat is converted into
bread were then discussed. Pictures of flour mills, grain
elevators, freight cars, etc. were shown. Children brought
samples of other grains. A grain of wheat was placed in a
tumbler of water and its germination followed. The growing
of other grains, such as rice, was described. The class took
a trip to a flour mill and then to a bakery. Upon its return to
school, the class related the things seen. The teacher recorded
these experiences, which were placed in booklet form, becoming
the children's first experiences with reading.

In connection with the unit on dairying, the children had
occasion to be exposed to many experiences. A two-reel motion
picture on dairying stimulated interest in how ice was made.
A trip to an ice plant resulted.

At the end of the semester each child had a typewritten copy
of the class' "First Book," relating all the experiences of the
term. At the last primary assembly period, one of the children
read the story to the other children.

"Third Year Nature Study Lessons." In Handbook for the
Use of Visual Aids. Bulletin No. 18. Board of Public
Education. Pittsburgh, Pa. 1929. p. 49-53.

A third year nature study lesson treats of animals at the
zoo. Pictures of the animals are used prior to the excursion to
the zoo. Following the trip, the children discuss where each
animal lives; they learn to recognize the name of each animal;
they tell a story for each and write short sentences ; they attempt
to show the animal in his natural environment through drawings ;
they see lantern slides, and as a review of the unit a motion
picture, Babies of Wild Animals, is used.

Lampe, Felix (Germany) "Films in the Schools." Inter-
national Review of Educational Cinematography. 5 :12-19.
January 1933.

Motion pictures shown to young children proved to be very
effective. Pantomime was promptly interpreted for what it was
supposed to represent. The children were able to make deduc-
tions along the desired lines merely from seeing a film.

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USE 147

Motion pictures can be used to develop powers of observa-
tion and seeing relationships. The incident is described wherein
a group of young boys were shown a film of elephants, which
they had never seen in any form or picture. After the picture,
the children were asked to describe what they had seen. They
gave what they thought was the expected reply. "The African
elephant has four toes in the forefeet, and three in the hind-
feet." The motion picture had been on the Indian elephant and
had not given any occasion for noting the toes of the elephant.
Instead of recounting what they had seen, the children were
merely calling to mind some particular fact from the general
number of facts which they had succeeded in remembering.

These children were living examples of the utilization of
a purely mechanical memory without any independence of mind,
without initiative in the matter of experience; things which as a
matter of fact can only be obtained through a patient use of the
faculty of observation.

Rowland, Lida (Teaneck, N.J.) "Visual Aids for Kinder-
gartens." International Review of Educational Cinematog-
raphy. 6 :7-8. January 1934.

When using motion pictures for young children, projections
should be brief, sub-titles should be suppressed, and where
talking is introduced into the film, the comment should be suited
to the mentality of the child. Sound and music, when included,
should not be excessive. The pictures should deal with very
simple phenomena, especially those which directly concern the
child's life, such as community situations, or pictures of animals.

Poole, Irene (Akron, Ohio) "The Motion Picture in the
Classroom." Educational Screen. 10:169-71. June 1931.

This study was conducted in an Akron elementary school in
1930 to determine the best methods of presenting motion pic-
tures to mixed elementary groups. In approaching the study,
it was assumed that educational pictures may conform in sub-
ject matter and purpose to at least one of three general classifica-
tions: (1) those which illustrate certain definite facts and
processes; (2) those which present new experiences to the
observer; and (3) those which entertain, either by narration,
amusement or aesthetic appreciation. The tests in this study

148 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

measured only retention of facts, since it is obviously impossible
to tabulate the degree of entertainment, appreciation, or new
experience attained.

Six possible methods of presenting motion pictures were used
with fourth, fifth, and sixth grade children :

1. Informal discussion by children while viewing the film

2. Lecture by the teacher during the presentation

3. No talking or discussion at any time in the classroom

4. Discussion of the film subject, directed by student chair-
man or teacher, preceding the presentation of the film

5. Discussion of the film, directed by student chairman or
teacher after the presentation

6. Combination of these last two. Pointing out things to be
noted and discussion of the subject before filming, with
discussion of the materials presented after the filming

Each film lesson provided for fifteen to twenty minutes of
discussion. Objective tests were given after each discussion
period, and approximately one week following the viewing of a
film uniform tests to measure retention of facts were given to
all the groups.

The results obtained from the five tests, covering eighteen
different situations, seem to indicate that facts observed in
motion pictures are better retained by children if there is no
introduction to the subject of the film, but a review and discus-
sion of the material presented after the film has been shown.

If the children are to receive the fullest benefit from the
moving picture, we must assume that their teacher shall have
previewed the film and made herself thoroughly familiar with
the subject matter presented. Then it will rest with the arbitrary
decision of this teacher whether or not any mention of certain
outstanding facts is made before the children view the film.
The tests described gave no conclusive evidence that fourth
grade children were able to grasp proportionately more facts
than the sixth grade groups in situations involving introductory
discussions.

Some older children of the seventh and eighth grades still
like to feel that movies are primarily for the purpose of enter-
tainment. They prefer no discussion of the picture whatever
in the classroom. There were some children who preferred
discussion of pictorial material.

Whether the discussion is led by a student chairman a
capable one, of course or by the teacher matters little in the

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USE 149

opinions of the children. However, some comments on this
point were:

"We sometimes waste a lot of time by repeating or talking about
things that are not very important."

"The teacher can ask better questions."

"The teacher has been places and can tell us more about them."

"If a chairman knows a lot about the picture, he can have a good
discussion."

Although there is some drill in speech and parliamentary
procedure when using a pupil chairman for discussion, the
advantage of the teacher's wide reading, varied experience, and
broad travel should not be overlooked.

Dorris, Anna V. "Visual Instruction in Other Subjects." In
Visual Instruction in the Public Schools. Ginn and Co.
1928. Chapter VII, p. 307-68.

This chapter considers the use of visual aids in natural
science, primary grades, health education, literature, intermedi-
ate, secondary subjects, fine arts, and household arts. In all
subjects of the school, the plan of attack should be informal and
the interest developed in one subject should be carried into
related subjects as well. No subject should be taught in any
grade as a thing apart as a separate subject but rather as a
contributing factor of the great mass of valuable knowledge
which tends to enlighten and enrich life. Nature study, for
example, can carry over into art, music, and literature.

The use of visual instruction should enrich the experience
of the pupil, substitute concrete images for indefinite ones, and
furnish new backgrounds for future comparisons. This type of
teaching demands forethought and planning on the part of the
teacher, but the effective results more than justify the extra
time and energy expended.

Baumeister, Emeline (Principal, Campbell School, San-
dusky, Ohio) "Classroom Films in Use." Classroom Film,
1 :no.5, 2:no.l. December 1935, February 1936. Available
without cost from Eastman Teaching Films Division, East-
man Kodak Co. Rochester, N.Y.

See the original article for ways in which silent films were
used in the teaching of nature study, social science, geography,
reading, health, and history.

150 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Emery, James Newell (Principal, James C. Potter School,
Pawtucket, R.I.) "The Motion Picture As a Classroom
Aid." Educational Screen. 9:164. June 1930.

Dieffenbach, Charles T. (Principal, J. Hull Browning School,
Tenafly, N.J.) "Student Activity in a Visual Aid Program."
Educational Screen. 16:11-12. January 1937.
A motion picture club, organized as an extra-curricular
activity, constitutes the projection force of the school. The
projection force is made up of forty boys and girls of fifth and
sixth grades who have been recommended by their respective
teachers, not for high scholastic ability, but as students who
would be valuable to the club, and whose membership in the
club would be valuable. In addition to the after-school meetings,
the members learn the operation of projection equipment, and
of radio equipment. They are assigned to assist those teachers
who desire such assistance, in the operation of equipment. The
projection force delivers all the necessary materials to the
classroom, prepares the room for projection, and later returns
the apparatus to the proper center. Each member strives for
the rank of first class operator, radio operator, stage manager,
or lantern slide operator.

This plan is considered feasible because it fits the philosophy
of education of the principal, by motivating learning through
intrinsic values ; by a self-controlled rather than a super-imposed
plan; by its use as a practical period for character-molding.
Further, materials are received and returned to their sources
promptly, all of the staff knows all of the material available
weekly, and a record of values is permanently obtained.

Motion pictures have been found useful occasionally in
developing certain skills. Drawing skills whose basic element
is motion may be effectively taught through especially adapted
motion pictures. The article by Perkins in this section, and
that by Ulp 5 will be suggestive for the teaching of drawing
skills.

e Page 234.

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USE 151

Perkins, Elizabeth Ward (Woodbury School of Applied
Observation, Boston, Mass.) "Drawing from Motion Pic-
tures." Educational Screen. 10:105-7. April 1931.

A drawing class at the Children's Art Centre in Boston,
consisting of beginning students of all races and ages, was given
films from which to draw. Later they were asked to draw
from moving animals at the Zoo, which would have been im-
possible without the previous training in drawing from a moving
object.

This technique was used in a Summer School conducted by
Charles Woodbury, and in the Massachusetts Art School in
Boston, under Royal Farnum, 1927. The results in the latter
case were so satisfactory that a course in Mental Training
through drawing was established, based on and illustrated by
drawing from motion pictures. In 1929, the method was initi-
ated in all the classes at the School of the Chicago Art Institute.

The results, with able teachers in charge, were important
both for a continuous training in the arts and in coordination
with other school subjects. It was proved that talent is not
necessary in order to be able to use a graphic language. If moti-
vated by interest, anyone can draw, according to his capacity to
think clearly about what is seen.

An example of the procedure used in drawing from a mov-
ing object is to have a class of boys drawing from a football
film. When the drawings were exhibited, questions were asked
in connection with the football tactics illustrated. "Is that a
good tackle? Is the man with the ball running fast enough
to make a touchdown ? "

Although the proportions of the figures may be inaccurate,
they possess a living quality, or they do not, and the boys are
keen judges. A discussion on proportion will usually develop,
and improvement in proportion follows of necessity after the
action has been expressed.

Some of the objectives of teaching drawing with films are:

1. To focus attention

2. To make quick choice of essentials

3. To gain power of feeling and expressing motion

4. To prove observation

5. To prove and improve memory

6. To gain a standard in proportion

152 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

7. To improve the quality of line

8. To demonstrate lack of information

9. To remove the fear of drawing in beginners

10. To bring the world into the classroom

11. To advance the time when expression in line will be as
common as in speech and writing

12. To force students to think for themselves.

Many advantages are claimed for the use of visual aids
in the social studies. These advantages include gains in
information, increased interest, stimulation of thought, stim-
ulation of curiosity, changes in attitude, and the like. Skinner
reports an experimental study in which slides, stereographs,
and movies were involved. 6 He concludes that the more
varied the forms of visual aids, the greater the gains.

The unit of work as conceived by Hoke illustrates the
desirability of careful planning on the part of the teacher
as to the exact role of each motion picture used. It indicates
in a most concrete fashion the way in which films may be
used to promote socially desirable objectives and independent
thought.

The use of films, supplemented by slides or other types of
visual aids, for geography instruction is discussed in several
articles. Courtney gives six guiding principles for using
visual materials, and some of the outcomes of a study of
Yellowstone National Park in which these principles were
applied. Bishop found pupil-made slides, Keystone slides,
photographs, and films helpful in developing a unit on Asia.
Myers has published several lesson units in geography using
slides and films. An outline of the unit on the Panama
Canal is here summarized, and additional lesson units cited.

A lesson plan for the study of the beef industry, reported
in the Pittsburgh, Pa. Handbook shows clearly the integration
of the excursion, stereographs, slides, and motion picture in
the development of the unit. The article by Ramsey similarly

6 See also analysis of this study in Chapter 5 on Research page 365.

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USE 153

presents a well-rounded unit using the visual aids available
from a museum for teaching life in the African Congo.

Visual aids which are not projected are discussed in the
article by Dexheimer. It is interesting to note the quotations
from pupil reactions to picture reading in geography. The
article also includes a listing of some uses of still pictures for
the teaching of geography, and some guiding principles for
the teacher. Proudfoot states that photographs are an ef-
fective medium for developing "reasoned memorization" of
facts. He uses photographs to provoke questions, and thereby
to contribute to a balanced understanding of the "cultural-
natural adjustment complex" of the region being studied.
He uses photographs to test factual information. It is doubt-
ful whether this stress upon memorization, whether it be
reasoned or unreasoned, is still widely held by educators.

The course of study for geography of the London Board
of Education has divided the teaching of geography into three
stages. The Central Information Bureau for Educational
Films points out how films may be used in the development
of each of these stages.

Skinner, Charles Edward (Miami University, Oxford, Ohio)
and Rich, Stephen Gottheil (Essex Falls, NJ.) "Visual
Aids in Geography : An Experiment." Elementary School
Journal. 25:700-5. May 1925.

This experiment was conducted in 1923 in two New York
City schools in a congested Jewish section of the city, one a
junior high school and the other an eight-year elementary school.

The experiment was carried on during February, over ten
teaching periods of forty minutes each, and three resting periods
of equal length. In the first school, one class was taught with
text alone plus some wall maps; another class by textbook,
stereographs, and lantern slides; a third had all these aids and
the addition of moving pictures. All the classes used the same
text and were taught by the same teacher. The "text class"
met the first period of the school day; the "slide class" met the

154 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

second period after an arithmetic lesson; and the "movie" class
met the fourth period after a spelling lesson.

In the second school only two groups were used, a text class
taught during the third period after a lesson in grammar, and
the slide class during the same period after word-study. The
first class was taught by a woman teacher, the other by a man.

Conclusions. Although the difference in attainment due to
the use of visual aids is very small, the gain in retention of
information, interest in geography and in pupil morale was dis-
tinct. The more varied the forms of visual instruction, the
greater the gain. Nevertheless, differences between teachers,
and between the texts gave rise to at least as great differences
in results as did the presence, variety, or absence of visual aids.
The gain due to thorough visual instruction, using all the visual
aids, is sufficiently great to warrant expenditure of school money
on them.

Hoke, G. W. (Eastman Teaching Films, Inc.) "Planning
Instruction with Classroom Films." School Executives Maga-
zine. 52 :265-7. April 1933.

The series of lessons outlined in this paper indicate one way
to plan instruction to promote the acquisition of a sequence of
ideas that will help the learner to understand life about him and
to adjust himself to it.

As an illustration, a junior high, school teacher of social
science decides to develop a unit of instruction leading up to
the idea of personal responsibility for the faithful discharge of
economic duties. With this as a starting point, and the goal
towards which the instruction is to be directed, the teacher
thinks back, step by step, to a beginning point for the instruction
that is well within the range of experience, interest, and ability
of the members of the class.

After due deliberation, a line of thought somewhat like the
following may be developed:

Personal responsibility is a consequence of interdependence,
set up by the exchange of goods and ideas produced through
division of labor, in round-about processes of compensating for
a scarcity in nature, of the things that satisfy human wants.

This analysis yields a sequence of seven ideas. From the
idea of human wants as the beginning point of instruction, there

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USE

155

is a continuous progress in difficulty and complexity up to the
idea of personal responsibility.

This sequence of ideas may be developed through language,
object lessons, field trips, laboratory work, and classroom films.
A series of motion pictures are selected by the teacher which
will help to introduce each of the seven ideas. Each film may
then be seen to illustrate all seven ideas. The relationship
between the films and the seven objectives may then be charted,
somewhat as follows:

FILM

SEVEN OBJECTIVES TO BE ACHIEVED

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

A

1A

2A

3A

4A

5A

6A

7A

B

Bl

B2

B3

B4

B5

B6

B7

C

Cl

C2

C3

C4

C5

C6

C7

D

Dl

D2

D3

D4

D5

D6

D7

E

El

E2

E3

E4

E5

E6

E7

F

Fl

F2

F3

F4

F5

F6

F7

G

Gl

G2

G3

G4

G5

G6

G7

KEY

A Pueblo Dwellers

B The Arid Southwest

C Irrigation

D Wheat

E Gold

F The Automobile

G Pig Iron to Steel

1. Human Wants

2. Scarcity in Nature

3. Round-about Processes

4. Division of Labor

5. Exchange

6. Interdependence

7. Responsibility

Each film, then, would be presented to illustrate one out-
standing human relationship; and incidentally, each of the other
six relationships might be distinguished to show that all of these
ideas are inter-related.

The following suggestions and questions indicate something
of the richness of the instruction material charted:

Presentation-. (1A. Human Wants Pueblo Dwellers)

1. Approach. Have the members of the class discuss what
they know about human wants for food, shelter, tools,
and safety.

2. Discussion. What evidences are shown in the film that
Pueblo Dwellers want food, shelter, tools, and safety?

Presentation-. (6F. Interdependence The Automobile)
1. Approach. Have the class discuss how the exchange of
goods and ideas makes people dependent upon each other.

156 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

2. Discussion. What evidences of the interdependence of
people are shown in the film of The Automobile?

Reorganisation Review :

(Fl) What human wants are satisfied in the manufacture
and use of automobiles ?

(F2) Cite some of the things not supplied by nature that
had to be produced before automobiles could be built.

(F3) What round-about processes are involved in the manu-
facture ?

(F4) How has division of labor made possible the produc-
tion of automobiles on a large scale?

(F5) How would it affect the manufacture of automobiles
if the materials used had to be secured through
barter?

Integration :

(6A) Why is there so little dependence of Pueblo Dwellers

on the rest of the world?
(6B) What evidence as to interdependence, or the lack

of it is shown by the Navajo Indians in the Arid

Southwest ?
(6C) In what ways are people living on an irrigation project

dependent upon each other, and upon the outside

world ?
(6D) In what ways is there an interdependence between

large scale wheat farmers, on one hand, and railroad

men, bankers, and teachers on the other hand?
(6E) In what ways is gold mining dependent upon other

industries ?

These and many other questions are suggested as concrete
Jllustration of the way in which a sequence of ideas may be
promoted by challenging active participation in the discussion
of specific situations. This medium of instruction makes it
possible for the learners to do the discussing, the function of
the teacher being primarily to direct attention, to afford oppor-
tunities to all for self-expression, and to encourage a readiness
to revise old ideas as experience ripens.

Courtney, Grace A. (Principal, Halls Grove School, Pitts-
burgh, Pa.) "Class Demonstration: Fifth Year Geography."
N.E.A. Proceedings. 1934:779-80.

A lesson in fifth grade geography on the topic, "Vacation
Trip to Yellowstone Park" was supplemented by slides, maps,

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USE 157

pictures, and films. Lantern slides were used to introduce the
unit, motion pictures to present the content material, reading
references to interpret and discuss the film, and a check up on
the unit made through test slides. Some of the outcomes of
this unit were:

1. A desire to visit Yellowstone

2. An appreciation of the pleasures offered there

3. An appreciation of the opportunities of all national parks

4. Interest in and appreciation of the natural beauty of the
United States.

In utilizing these visual aids, six guiding principles have
been formulated:

1. Visual aids should supplement the course of study.

2. They should be grouped around a central theme.

3. Each type has its place in the teaching process and may
be used to enrich it.

4. Too much illustrative material may cloud rather than
clarify the concept to be developed.

5. Use of visual materials should not be allowed to over-
develop passive receptivity.

6. Pupils should be held responsible for definite reactions.

Bishop, Sue (Wollaston School, Quincy, Mass.) "A Geog-
raphy Lesson with Visual Aids." Educational Screen. 12 :
90-1. March 1933.

Lantern slides made by the pupils, Keystone slides, and
a motion picture were used in an intermediate geography class
for studying Asia. The general theme to be developed by the
unit was that in Asia much of the work is done by animals and
people, rather than by machines.

The immediate aim of the lesson was to get acquainted with
different types of labor in the Orient. The ultimate aim was to
discover that these types of labor depend largely upon the
surface of the country, climate, density of population. The
methods used to develop the unit were lantern slides, films,
geographic pictures, note book work with an oral check-up, and
a written test.

The unit was introduced through questions and listings on
the blackboard of the animals commonly used for labor, and
the places where coolie labor is prevalent. The children then

158 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

made slides illustrating a ricksha, furniture mover, beating out
grain, a sedan chair, a yak, a Chinese wheelbarrow, and the like.
Keystone slides were projected to demonstrate the sawing of
lumber in Manchuria, road making in China, Chinese boys
plowing in Northern China, etc.

A motion picture was presented to show the contrast in
methods of labor between the East and the West. Such proces-
ses as irrigating rice fields, loading boats, hauling lumber, haul-
ing freight, and carrying mail were compared.

The children kept a note-book on the unit and reported orally
on the materials included. A written test was given to check
on the extent to which the aims of the lesson unit had been
attained.

Myers, Stella E. "How Trees of the Forest Are Changed
into Lumber." Educational Screen. 5 :48. January 1926.

Myers, Stella E. "How the White Milk of a Tree Is Made
into Black Rubber." Educational Screen. 5:110-13. Febru-
ary 1926.

Myers, Stella E. "Wheat and Other Grains." Educational
Screen. 5 :242. April 1926.

Myers, Stella Evelyn (Forest Park, Illinois) "A Visual
Study of the Panama Canal." Educational Screen. 7:30-2.
March 1928.

The following lesson plan was used to develop a unit in
geography on the Panama Canal, in which about a week was
allotted for preparing the students for the content of a motion
picture on the subject. Reference books and stereographs were
used in the preliminary work. One girl constructed a salt relief
map. A boy transferred the information thus acquired to map
slides. Children selected slides from the Keystone set to il-
lustrate the unit, and other children prepared oral reports on
the slides, using the syllabus. All this served as preparation
for the film.

There were three forty-five minute class periods for this
preliminary work, and much of the work done by the children
was done at home, in the library, Or during supervised study
periods. There is danger, however, in letting this period of
preparation drag, for the child's interest lags and then spon-
taneity and enthusiasm are lost.

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USE

159

LESSON PLAN IN GEOGRAPHY ON PANAMA CANAL

TOPIC FILM CONTENT SLIDE NUMBER AND

TITLE

Geographical Features

Historical Features

b) The film introduces
ex-President Roose-
velt as the champ-
ion of the project.
He appoints Gener-
als G o r g a s and
Goethals on the
Canal Commission.

Housing and Sanitation d) Film shows admin-
Problems istrative features ;
employees, housing,
sanitations, etc.

Engineering Features

f) Film shows drill-
ing, digging, cars
loading and dump-
ing dirt.

h) Locks, dams, etc.

j) Landslides
much labor.

undo

1) The concluding por-
tion of film reveals
task of cleaning up
the slides, and open-
ing of Canal.

a) Slides 1 and 2 made
by children ; and
shown before film.
No. 18. Map of
Canal Zone. Report
by one or more
children

c) Slides 12, 13, 11.
Generals Goethals
and Gorgas ; French
Engines.

Slide 10 or 249.
Old French Dwell-
ings.

e) Slides 10 or 249.
Slides 14 or 255.
Hospital.

Slides 15, 16, 17.
Battle Alley, Drip
Barrel, Builders'
Houses.

g) Slides 19, 31, 33,
34, 35. Digging thru
a hill, Steam shovel,
Digging in Gaillard
Cut, Deepest part
of Cut.

Slides 41, 28. Ce-
ment mixers.

i) Slides 20, 21. Spill-
way. 22, 23, 24, 25,
27, 42, 30. Turbines,
Gatun Locks, boats
in locks, emergency
dam.

39, 40. Pedro Miguel
and Miraflores
Locks.

k) 36, 37. Beginning of
slides at Gaillard
Cut.

m) 44, 47, 48, 49.

"Projects Enriched by the Use of Visual Aids." In Handbook
for the Use of Visual Aids. Bulletin No. 18. Board of
Public Education. Pittsburgh, Pa. 1929. p. 67.

160 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

A fifth year lesson plan for teaching a unit on "Our Beef
Industry" to fifth year geography students includes various
types of visual aids, correlated with the city course of study,
with specific reference to the materials available from the
Pittsburgh Department of Visualization.

The lesson plan would have a sequence somewhat as follows :

1. Preparation for a trip to the Pittsburgh Stock Yards

2. School journey to the stock yards

3. Discussion of the trip

4. Motion picture film, A Cattle Ranch, to show beef
cattle in their natural environment, to show the daily duties of
cowboys, to illustrate skill in the round-up of cattle, the use
of the lasso, branding of calves, and the like. There is provision
for preliminary and follow-up discussion of this film.

5. Supervised study period in which stereographs, reference
books, and outline maps are used as preparation for the social-
ized recitation to follow.

6. Life on the cattle ranch. A discussion lesson, using
six Keystone slides, and three from another set.

7. The by-products of the meat-packing industry.

8. Conclusions from this unit, based on the materials used.
Test.

Ramsey, Grace Fisher (Associate Curator, American Mu-
seum of Natural History, New York City) "Integration
of Motion Pictures with Other Visual Aids." National
Board of Review Magazine. 11 :4-5. March 1936.

The following lesson unit is suggestive of the ways in which
some of the visual aids available to teachers in the New York
City schools from the American Museum of Natural History
may be integrated into a meaningful lesson on life in the
African Congo.

In order to study the problems of climate involved in tropical
countries, it is impossible to use the field trip. But speci-
mens of materials used by natives of the African Congo are
available from the museum, including a piece of bark cloth
made from the inner bark of a wild fig tree, a very short grass
skirt, a brass armlet, a head ring for carrying burdens, a field
basket used in bringing back to the village the plantains and
the manioc roots which form the staple food of these people.

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USE 161

Iron axes, spears, and daggers made by native iron workers are
also available, as are musical instruments. Another type of
visual material which may be used is a miniature habitat group
or a diorama, showing a native village with tall forest trees, the
inhabitants engaged in various activities, such as pounding out
bark cloth, forging iron, making pottery, beating the large
wooden drum to broadcast messages to other tribes, and so on.

A motion picture is used to show a native in the act of
pounding a piece of bark into shape, and the smelting of iron
ore to be pounded into a knife. This medium, together with
the specimens which the students may handle, and a few se-
lected, well-colored lantern slides projected to furnish a more
realistic background for these Congo peoples, and some photo-
graphs and stereographs will provide an integration of visual
aids that will result in a true conception about how the natives
of the Congo adjust themselves to their climate and succeed in
their problem of living.

The use of pictures, both still and motion, with intelligent
understanding and guidance by the teacher and the introduction
of realia from the museum will give a reality and meaning
needed in all of our education today.

Dexheimer, Lora M. (Supervising Teacher, Illinois State
Normal University, Normal, Illinois) "Systematizing the
Use of Pictures in Teaching Sixth-Grade Geography." Year-
book of the National Society for the Study of Education.
32:507-19. 1933.

The following account describes an attempt to combine
picture study with text and reference work, with the definite aim
of stimulating the pupils' interest and of making more real the
life and places studied. The work was done during an eighteen-
week period in which the continent of Europe was studied.
There were eighteen sixth-grade students, taught entirely by a
student teacher in the sophomore year under the guidance of
the supervising teacher.

Standards for selection of pictures. These were, roughly,
(1) Does the picture show some phase of man's activity in
relation to his environment? (2) Is it simple enough for the
pupils' comprehension? (3) Does it help to illustrate, verify,
extend, explain, or compare knowledge already gained? (4)
Does it stimulate further inquiry or inference concerning the

162 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

subject illustrated? and (5) Does it contribute to geographic
thinking; that is, does it cultivate the ability to see and interpret
relations between man's activities and his natural environment?

Some methods used with pictures:

1. To introduce a unit. Children were given a set of pic-
tures of various countries of Europe, and asked to tell some
kinds of work that people do there. Among the comments were :

"This picture is in England. There are sheep and there is a
shepherd driving them. That tells me that they don't have a lot of
traffic on this road."

"In this picture I see two men harvesting oats in Russia with an
American harvesting machine."

"In this picture they are loading wheat for export from Russia.
This makes me think that they raise more wheat in Russia than they use."

2. Pictures used to supplement study. After some study
of how Europe feeds its people, with short written reports on
what they had learned, pupils were asked to mention any new
information which a series of pictures offered. Some of their
comments were:

"My picture shows that in countries of Europe many women work
in the fields. I guess they get less pay than men do."

"I learned that in the Balkan countries cattle are used to tread the
grain out of its hull instead of thrashing it. That is a slow and back-
ward way to do it. It's not very clean either."

"Children work in grain fields in central Europe. Just as soon as
they are able to do some duty it seems that they take their places in
the fields. This must be where the grain is raised by hand work. The
fields look small."

3. Pictures used as an aid in making a summary.

4. Pictures to begin a topic.

5. Pictures for group work in outlining a study.

6. Pictures used as a test.

7. A journey with pictures.

8. Pictures to give a rapid preview.

9. Organizing a sequence with pictures.

10. Projected pictures for review.

11. Pictures for comparison with other countries.

12. Pictures used to develop ability to relate what is already
known to new situations.

13. Use of pictures for entertainment, in which projected
slides are used before an audience to illustrate the work of the
term.

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USE 163

Comments and conclusions:

1. The pictures used were almost wholly of the type show-
ing man's relation to his environment. They were always
chosen because of some bearing upon the unit of study, and
when necessary, to show sequences.

2. Picture study was made meaningful, not a mere diversion.
Each pupil or group was held responsible for a definite result.
An attempt was made to provide a common experience through
pictures for understanding the discussion.

3. The teacher was constantly aware that this was a lesson
in the geography of Europe, not simply pictures.

4. Place geography and map exercises supplemented the
pictures.

5. The number and variety of pictures used in any exercise
were limited. A few pictures, definitely assigned and thought-
fully studied, are best used.

6. The use of pictures was not the only means of instruction
for geography, but it was an important means.

7. Picture exercises lack sequence and completeness and can
only show man's activities with his environment. An interest
in people and their use of environment with young pupils,
however, can develop further interest toward a more exhaustive
study.

8. There were two types of pictures: those showing clearly
some definite meaning, and those suggesting or stimulating
inference.

9. Better results in understanding came from using pic-
tures showing simple rather than complex processes.

10. The pupils were greatly stimulated in this study to an
appreciative use of the pictures in their texts. Textbook illus-
trations are often unrelated to the text, representative of excep-
tional situations rather than everyday life, and fostering a
provincial "superiority complex" rather than a sympathetic
understanding of other people.

11. From the standpoint of the teacher's purpose, the pic-
tures may be classified as: (a) those calculated primarily to
arouse interest and a desire to investigate further; (b) those
selected to aid in an interpretation of texts; and (c) those
chosen for checking and testing acquired knowledge.

12. Legends with pictures were variously used.

164 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

13. Some of the advantages claimed with this use of pic-
tures are: (a) pictures give details which supplement and
vitalize printed statements; (b) they help children to develop
powers of geographic thinking; (c) they facilitate the learning
process by an appeal to curiosity; (d) they develop a habit of
studying and evaluating textbook illustrations; (e) they make
all learning more effective, but especially that of children with
slow reading ability; (f) they provide concreteness to classroom
discussions; (g) the degree of interest and enthusiasm, the
clearness of the images, the growing realization of distant
peoples as workers like ourselves, the avidity with which pupils
and teacher attacked new problems made the geography hour
an anticipated pleasure in each day's work.

14. Suggestions for further investigation:

(a) The types of studies most aided by using pictures

(b) The methods of assignment and study most efficient for
each

(c) Exact means of evaluating results

(d) Question of learning vs. entertainment

(e) Most effective ways of using legends

(f) Suitable classifications of pictures

(g) Use of pictures to overcome reading handicaps.

Proudfoot, Malcolm J. (University of Chicago) "The Use

of Photographic Material in Teaching Elementary Geog-

. raphy." Journal of Geography. 31:381-90. December 1932.

Central Information Bureau for Educational Films, Ltd.
"The Film in Relation to the School Curriculum : Teaching
of Geography." In Film Progress-, a supplement to the
National Encyclopedia of Educational Films. July 1936.
London, England.

The Board of Education divides the teaching of geography
into three stages, each of which may use educational films in
achieving its objectives :

1. "To awaken the children's interest in their surroundings, both in
the phenomena of nature and in the lives and habits of the people, and
to compare with these the lives and habits of other peoples living
amongst different surroundings."

An attempt should be made in this stage to include typical
scenes from the main climatic regions of the world, rather than
from one single region, and show how food-getting, clothes,
houses, and travel differ. Constant use of well selected pic-

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USE 165

tures, photographs, lantern slides, etc. and of natural specimens
should be encouraged. By no means of which we know can the
lives of other nations be brought so vividly to the minds of
small children as by journeys to other countries through the
motion picture.

2. "In the second stage he (the teacher) will endeavour to impart
a general knowledge in broad outline of the geography of the world.
The children should, for example, gain some knowledge of the distribu-
tion of land and water, become acquainted with important types of land
relief and climate, and acquire incidentally some preliminary notions
about the industrial and commercial relations between one part of the
world and another."

The Central Information Bureau for Educational Films is
cooperating with Kodak, Ensign, and other firms of the educa-
tional film industry in the formation of a library of films to
accompany the geography syllabi.

3. "In the third stage the aim should be to give a clear impression
of the world as a whole together with some definite knowledge of its
most important regions, especially the members of the British Com-
monwealth."

Films have been found to be helpful in stimulating further
activity on the part of children.

The most widely used series of films for the teaching of
American history are the Yale Chronicles of America Photo-
plays. The following summaries indicate some uses made
of these films in elementary and junior high school history
classes. Delp has made a point of the critical way in which
students viewed the films to make the experience meaningful.
Lesson plans published by McAteer and Evans, and the
Pittsburgh, Pa. Handbook have here been briefly indicated.

Dolezal has extended the use of one of the chronicles,
Pioneer Woman, to sensitizing a group of young girls of
retarded mental ability to the great part which women played
in establishing our nation. This awareness was related to
experiences in the life of the girls, and the results were
gratifying.

Hoek, through a service study in his school, established
the value of the Chronicles for children below the junior
high school level.

166 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Delp, I. W. (Canton, Ohio) "An Effective Use of the
'Chronicles of America.'' Educational Screen. 7:241.
November 1928.

Each year the seventh and eighth grade classes make an
intensive study of one or more of the Chronicles bearing directly
upon the history instruction.

The picture is run, with or without comments as the occasion
demands. Pupils take notes. After the showing they fully
discuss what they have seen, raising questions as to accuracy,
whether possible to have been pictured at the actual site, what
other episodes might have been included, what others had better
have been shown, what new ideas were noted, and what old ideas
contradicted.

Where there is a doubtful point, the film is run over again to
be certain of the story. If the disagreement continues, the
search is made through reference books. At one time a boy
raised the question whether glass should be shown in a Penn-
sylvania log house, as the film clearly showed. It was an inter-
esting chase after facts which revealed much more than that glass
was used at a certain place at a certain time.

Before the picture is introduced, the pupils make a list of
picturable episodes. These episodes are then checked against
those listed on the synopsis sheet.

After the final showing and discussion, the class prepares
a lesson plan or study sheet.

McAteer, Ercel C. and Evans, Marian. "Daniel Boone : A
Film Lesson." Educational Screen. 5 :261-3. May 1926.

A unit on the early westward movement in American history
for seventh and eighth grade involved reading, study of
vocabulary, film characters to be seen in the film, and thought
questions following the film showing. Some pupil activities
and dramatizations are suggested.

"Seventh Year History Lesson." In Handbook for the Use of
Visual Aids. Bulletin No. 18. Board of Public Education.
Pittsburgh, Pa. 1929. p. 57-62.

The lesson plan includes suggestions for motivation, follow-
up, socialized recitation, and an objective test for use with the

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USE 167

Declaration of Independence in which emphasis will be placed
upon checking the content of the film with information in refer-
ence books.

Dolezal, Rose M. "Socialization from the Classroom Moving
Picture." Educational Screen. 11:121-2. April 1932.

An eighth grade class of girls who were very retarded in their
mental capacity was used in this study. The mental ages of
the girls in the class were eight, nine, or ten years, whereas the
chronological ages were actually fourteen and fifteen years.

After studying the movement of the first settlers into the
West during the eighteenth century, and especially the settle-
ment of Kentucky and Tennessee, a film was presented, Pioneer
Woman, in which the part played by the pioneer woman in the
settlement of Boonesboro is depicted.

At the next class meeting the film was discussed in an in-
formal manner. The girls realized, according to this discussion,
that "men did not win battles alone." They realized that it
would have been impossible to win the wilderness and hold it,
if it had not been for the quiet and plodding toil of the brave
pioneer women at home, performing their duties even when the
dangers and disappointments were great.

A discussion of character and social traits was the outgrowth
of this history lesson. The talk centered about the value and
need for simple household tasks, the sacrifices which have to be
made in order to pave a way. This film tended to show the
simplicity of the pioneer women and the undesirability of much
jewelry, cosmetics, and elaborate clothes.

A committee was ultimately formed to assist girls who came
to school improperly attired, or with highly colored complexions.

Hoek, Floyd G. (Principal, Longfellow School, Teaneck,
N.J.) "An Enrichment in a Course of Study." Educational
Screen. 13 :22-5. January 1934.

The three fifth grade classes in the school, after measure-
ment by standardized tests, were divided into three groups
according to mental ability. The work in American History
was divided into three units, each of which was presented in
the three classes in the same way. The teaching in each class
was carefully checked and reading material pertaining to each
unit was controlled so as to provide a fair basis for comparison.

168 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

At the conclusion of each unit of work, one class was shown
a motion picture on the subject, a second class was shown slides,
and the third class was given no instruction with visual aids.
This was immediately followed by a test in all three grades.

Conclusions :

1. .The lower group, when shown a film which supplemented
the teaching of the unit, were brought up almost to the level
of the superior group that had had no visual work.

2. When the superior group, however, saw a film, such a
marked improvement was not shown. The most logical reason
for this seems to be that the pupils of the superior group, having
greater reading ability, reach their capacity for absorption of
subject matter prior to the film showing. Even in this group,
however, the results of the test showed the class to be more
homogeneous as a result of visual instruction.

This experiment establishes the Yale Chronicles as a possible
aid for intermediate grades, whereas they had always been recom-
mended for junior and senior high schools.

In health education one of the most important problems
is the development of desirable attitudes toward such things
as diet, sleep, cleanliness, and the like. Geary has used a
health film to introduce a unit, in which a series of school
journeys was the outstanding teaching aid. Lindquist
describes the successful use of certain health films with a
group of children living in a crowded section of New York
City, following some of the principles set up by the new
progressive school.

Hoke has clearly stated what objectives of health educa-
tion were to be achieved by using motion pictures, and how
these films succeeded in fulfilling the objectives. The tech-
nique for using films is compared with that used for teaching
silent reading.

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USE 169

Geary, Catherine E. (Elementary Supervisor, Lebanon Pub-
lic School, Lebanon, Pa.) "A Successful Visual Teaching
Program How It Operates." Nation's Schools. 11:39-42.
February 1933.

Motion pictures are used with children of second and third
grade to develop habits of healthful living. The films used are
rated as particularly well adapted to the interests, experience
and understanding of these children. The action of the stories
is sufficiently slow and uninvolved to make it possible for the
children to get a full understanding, while the captions contain
words that already are a part of the children's reading
vocabulary. The story characters are boys and girls and pets,
and persons who are a part of normal child life.

On the first day of developing a unit on Milk, the teacher
receives a film guide with suggested pocedures for using and
following up a film on the subject. At no time is the teacher
told how to proceed. The following day the film is projected
by a post-graduate high school student in the classroom. During
the first showing the teacher makes some pertinent remarks, but
when the film is repeated shortly after, it is run through
without comment. Each teacher's initiative is challenged to carry
on the most interesting and efficient learning activities in con-
nection with the unit. A few days later, the children are taken
on a school journey to a dairy farm, fruit stores, or similar places
where the processes of collecting and distributing food are
carried on.

School journeys are always carefully planned. The teacher
visits the place herself before bringing the children to become
acquainted with the things to be seen, in order that the children
may be prepared in advance for things to look for. During the
trip, the teacher or a representative of the management point
out things of interest.

Such activities as reading, oral talks, dramatizations, or the
preparation of reading booklets usually follow a film showing
and a school journey. The children construct miniature farms,
dairies, or stores. They make cheese and butter in the class-
room which they share with children in other grades. They
plant cereals in window boxes and watch them grow. They
relate their stories through pictures, poems, riddles, or songs.
All the so-called subjects and learning become part of the health

170 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

activity unit. The year's work culminated in a dramatization,
"The Garden of Health/'

The results of this program are so satisfactory that it should
be continued throughout the school over a long period of time.
The children learned to know more about milk, bread, cereals,
fruits and vegetables than ever before; they appreciate the uses
and values of these items to a greater degree, and they have
carried back to their homes the lessons they have learned. There
is strong evidence that the children were actually making the
knowledge part of themselves. The reaction of the children to
the whole activity, and toward the culminating playlet indicated
the keen interest and appreciation.

Lindquist, Margaret A. (Elementary School Principal, New
York City) "A Film-Aided Cleanliness Program." Class-
room Film. vol. 2, no. 2. June 1936. Eastman Teaching
Films, Inc. Rochester, N.Y.

The following unit was developed along the lines of the
principles set up by the new progressive schools, in a fourth
grade class in a crowded section of New York City.

The problem was approached during the morning inspection
period. The special needs of the class for cleanliness were
discussed and a list placed on the board. An attitude toward
cleanliness was developed, especially with reference to the after-
noon gym period. The Eastman film, Clean Face and Hands
was shown. A discussion was held on the technique of cleanli-
ness as shown in the picture. Among other things the children
discussed the articles necessary to maintaining cleanliness.

At another lesson a set of posters on clean face, hands, neck,
nails, etc. and the articles used to acquire these were introduced.
The posters had been made by a commercial art class in one of
the city high schools. The motion picture, together with these
visual aids, resulted in the development of two plans. First, the
class was going to procure soap and paper towels for use after
the game period; and secondly they were going to obtain toilet
articles necessary for use at home. One of the children sug-
gested that they build their own health kits.

The teachers permitted the children to order the desired
quantity of materials, to distribute them, and supervise their
use. Arithmetic was integrated with it by problems on cost
per child per term of twenty weeks. The towels come 150 to

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USE 171

the package, and 25 packages to the carton, priced at $1.99
per carton. The children were also allowed to write the letters
ordering the goods, and to keep the inventory records up to date.

The students checked one another on the extent to which each
was keeping clean at home. Each child was expected to secure
and use a personal face cloth, towel, comb, nail brush, tooth-
brush, and tooth paste. This was difficult, since many could not
afford them. Toweling was purchased by the yard, face cloths
were made by the children from discarded towels, the pupils
learned to wash and dry their own cloths. Orange sticks and
sterilized cotton were used as substitutes for a nail brush. Many
bought files. Where combs, nail brushes and tooth brushes
could not be procured by the pupils, sample sizes were bought
from the manufacturers for the cost of shipment.

When the kits were completed, they were taken home and
weekly scores kept of their use. The truth of the statements
on these scores was easily verified by inspection results.

As an outcome of this unit, a technique for wash-up with
limited facilities after a football game has been developed for
the 4A grade. These children, having now progressed to the
4B, continue their hygiene habits. The new 4A class has been
invited to send representatives to observe the procedure of their
predecessors. The 4B class has advanced to a new study,
utilizing the film, Clean Clothes.

The teachers of the 4A undertake this health activity each
term, this being the school level at which the aid is most needed.
Some children report a family interest in the cleanliness habits,
and the original classes have undertaken a survey of the extent
to which other members of families own and use individual
toilet articles.

The fact that the interest continues unabated is proof that
the activity has its roots in a vital local problem. The unusual
analysis of the techniques of cleanliness is directly traceable to
the understandable logic of the motion picture, without which
the benefits from the film would never have been derived.

Hoke, Georgia C. (Former Director of Health Education,
Maiden, Mass.) "Classroom Films in Health Teaching."
Education. 54 :223-8. December 1933.

The objectives of health education are : In the lower grades
the teaching problem is focussed on the how of health behavior.

172 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

In the upper grades it is focussed on the why. By planning
health instruction that will challenge the child's interest, his
attention will be directed on the matter in hand, and he will
be provided with impressions that are direct, vivid, rapidly
acquired, and accurate. One medium is through language, a
medium used throughout life for the purpose of communication.
A compensating device for the limitations of language is the
classroom film.

In using a film, the teacher should so direct attention before
screening that the children will note the pertinent facts as the
film is shown. Children will be directed to such matters as,
What is it like? How does it work? What is its purpose ? The
motion picture should be short and pertinent.

There should be few, if any, comments by the teacher during
a film showing. This is the practice followed when children are
engaged in silent reading, and is similarly applicable to film
reading.

Because of the varying richness and difficulty of comprehen-
sion in the materials of classroom film for health instruction, no
set rule can be made as to the length of film to be shown, or
as to the exact procedure in relation to other classroom aids.
In some cases the entire film may be shown first as a whole, with
subsequent showing of parts of it. In other cases the subject
matter of the film may be so rich in new material that pupils
cannot pay attention to, or profit from a showing of the complete
film first. In such cases it is best to show parts first, and later
show the entire film for purposes of review or summarization.

The science area has probably been better supplied with
good motion picture material than many of the other sub-
ject matter fields. Experimental studies show clearly that
films can make a very definite contribution to science instruc-
tion, especially on the secondary level. A few references
dealing with elementary science teaching have been included
below to indicate some of the practices in schools.

The Neuner article is an admirable indication of the
way in which a supervisor has analyzed the potentialities of
the educational film with relation to the elementary science
program. This is one of the basic problems now facing the

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USE 173

visual education movement, and one which can be overcome
only when all supervisors of instruction have taken the time
to evaluate the motion picture as it applies to their situation.
The nature study lesson plan from the Pittsburgh, Pa.
Handbook suggests the use of a varied assortment of visual
aids, of which the motion picture is recommended to be used
for reviewing the unit. The lesson plan which Brunstetter
includes in his new book was prepared by a New York City
teacher, Miss McCarthy, using sound films in a science unit.
Whittinghill describes the cooperation which his Department
of Visual Education offers to teachers of general science in
properly editing and correlating suitable motion pictures.

Neuner, Elsie Flint (Supervisor of Elementary Science,
New Rochelle, N.Y.) "Films as a Supplement to Experi-
ence in Elementary Science." Classroom Film. March 1937.
Eastman Teaching Films Division. Rochester, N.Y.

The teachers and supervisors of science in the elementary
schools of New Rochelle have planned the elementary science
course of study around the central idea of the child living in
an ever-widening environment. In the lower primary grades
the child is aided in evaluating his early surroundings, such as
his .school, the nearest store, his neighbor's and his own back
yard, and pets. By the end of the third grade his environment
has extended to include a much larger horizon. He is interested
in children of other communities and other countries. He wants
to know where his food comes from, who makes his clothing,
how do animals at the Zoo live in their native habitat, what
makes plants grow, and what makes the sun shine? After the
completion of the intermediate grades, the child begins to ask
questions beginning with "why" and "how" with more frequency
than questions beginning with "what."

The ideal way to study our environment in any of its many
aspects is to gain first-hand experiences, to answer questions by
direct observation. It is impossible to devote the time and the
effort necessary to understand all the aspects of science through
direct experience. It is therefore desirable to rely upon vicarious
experiences for enrichment. The motion picture in the hands

174

MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

of the elementary teacher in her own classroom, with her own
class, offers one of the best substitutes for the "real thing."

The New Rochelle schools purchased five films for science
instruction. It was found that these could be used in many
different situations, and in connection with a number of different
units on various grade levels. It is therefore unnecessary for a
school system to own a large number of films in order to begin
to fill vicariously the gaps in actual experience.

A chart is offered to illustrate the varying uses which can
be made of fifteen films recommended for a minimum library of
science films. Each of the films is analyzed in its relation to
the entire course of study for elementary science in New
Rochelle.

Care of Plants at
Home and School....

Living Things Round
About Us

Baby Animals ,

Some Common Birds .

GRADE II
Seasonal Change ..
Care of Pets .

The Conservation of
Wild Flowers ..

Gardening

Foods .
Clothing

The Sun, as the
Giver of Life
the Source of
Energy

Forms of Water
Effects of Water ....

SOME FRIENDLY
BIRDS

BIRD HOMES

BRAZIL I
(AMAZONIAN
LOWLANDS)

REFORESTATION

WEATHER
FORECASTING

COTTON GROWING

THE FARM

THE GREEN PLANT

THE FORMATION
OF SOIL

RANGE SHEEP

ELECTRIC POWER

IN THE SOUTHERN

APPALACHIANS

YELLOWSTONE

NATIONAL

PARK

Stars -and Constella-
tions

if e of the Past

.Habitats

.Necessary Factors of
the Environment ....

GRADE V

>Trees and Forest*

The Solar System

^Weather and Climate..

^Life Histories of

Insects .'

GRADE VI

'he Balance of Na-
ture

k Progress In Science
and Invention
Since Colonial
Days

.The Changing Surface
of the Earth

k Energy Transforma-
tions

CHART II A minimum film library, and its application to an elementary science program.

"Third Year Nature Study." In Handbook for the Use of
Visual Aids. Bulletin No. 18. Board of Public Education.
Pittsburgh, Pa. p. 49-53.

Already reviewed on page 160.

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USE 175

McCarthy, Kathryn (Elementary School Teacher, Brooklyn,
N.Y.) "Outline of a Typical Unit Taught with a Sound
Film/' In How to Use the Educational Sound Film, by M. R.
Brunstetter. University of Chicago Press. 1937. p. 142-50.

The first lesson provides for a general overview of the study
of erosion, the showing of an entire film, followed by short
compositions, poems, and the beginnings of a picture collection.

In the second- science lesson, the discussion is focussed upon
unusual land formations. Compositions on erosion are read
before the group. The meaning of the term, "pothole" is illus-
trated by showing of a portion of a sound film. The pupils
then discuss the formation of rocks, rivers, falls, canyons. They
decide to make a canyon.

In the third lesson the first part of the film is re-run as a
silent picture to review the concepts already learned. The work
of rivers is then introduced through a film. The dust storms
currently sweeping through parts of our country are cited. With
reference to the expression, "meandering streams," the class
is asked to write a composition, and if possible, illustrate it.

The last lesson on "Work of Running Water" is devoted
to a special consideration of Niagara Falls. The ways in which
the rocks under the Falls are worn away provides concrete illus-
tration of the work of running water. The class is then asked to
complete its booklet on the unit.

Whittinghill, W. W. (Department of Visual Education,
Detroit, Michigan) "General Science Film Program in the
Detroit Intermediate Schools." Educational Screen. 5 :205-
6. April 1926.

After an examination of the twenty science units listed in
the course of study in General Science, a list of sixty reels of
motion pictures was recommended. These films were then
adapted and graded to the development of the pupils in seventh,
eighth, and ninth grades of the intermediate school. A synopsis
of the film is placed in the hands of each teacher and suggestions
made for correlating each film with the units of work.

The value of the motion picture in developing written and
oral expression is so well established that writers take this
for granted and pass on to other values. Most teachers

176 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

reporting their use of films mention, in connection with the
gains made by a film-aided lesson, that oral and written
composition were improved. But few articles have been
found that relate to the exclusive use of motion pictures for
language work.

Otto has given the details of a unit on the development
of the lamp, in which a motion picture was used to intro-
duce a unit and lantern slides made by the children were
used to illustrate the knowledge acquired during the study.
The frame in which the film was used is clearly presented
in this article.

A few articles by teachers in schools for deaf children,
and by two teachers of abnormal children reveal the distinc-
tive contribution of the motion picture in developing fluency
of expression with such children.

Safety education, although not treated as a separate
subject-matter field in most courses of study, may be the
topic for a unit in English, as pointed out by Lee, in which
a motion picture motivated the making of slides. The inten-
sive safety campaign now going on in the New York State
schools is greatly enriched by the use of various types of
visual aids. Stack describes the types of materials used,
how they are selected, and how they are presented.

Otto, Elsie I. (Grade 4, School 9, Buffalo, N.Y.) "Motiva-
tion of English through Films, Slides and Pictures." Educa-
tional Screen. 14:39-41. February 1935.

The topic of the unit which was developed in this fourth grade
class was, "The Development of the Lamp." A motion picture
entitled, Light of a Race, was used as an introduction. A
study of vocabulary preceded the film showing. Discussion
followed it. The children were encouraged to talk freely about
the different ways in which artificial lighting is created, and
their talk followed the order of development. The reference
books on the reading table were used to study intensively each
type of lamp. A collection of mounted pictures was used to

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USE 177

illustrate individual reports by the pupils. The class developed
an outline, guided by the teacher. Oral and written stories
followed. Home-made slides were prepared to accompany these
stories. Fifteen of the best drawings were selected to be made
into slides. The teacher found the children unusually apt in
making slides and large colored illustrations.

"Language Teaching by Cinema." Popular Educator. 41 :143.
November 1923 (Quoted from the London Times)

An administrator in the national deaf and dumb institute
in Paris undertook to cooperate with a film producer in making
films to answer his needs. He wrote scenarios based on the
7,000 most commonly used words which deaf and dumb children
would be apt to need in lip-reading. The sentences spoken in the
dramatizations were short and appropriate to the scene. The
teacher, after each scene, is expected to stop the projector, and
by the illumination from a small lamp, repeat the sentence.

These films were found helpful for language work in the
mother tongue, as well as for students of other countries study-
ing French.

Beauchamp, James B. (Kentucky School for the Deaf)
"Language from Moving Pictures." Volta Review. 33 :
123-4. March 1931.

Carefully selected educational films are found to be most
helpful for language work in this school. Each Friday morning
at 8 o'clock, the pupils from second grade up assemble in Chapel
to see two or three reels of pictures. After the showing the
pupils return to their classrooms, and follow-up begins. Although
the films treat of historical, geographical, scientific or other
material, their content is used mainly for language work.

Composition work, grammar, and other types of language
work were found to be aided through the use of films. Some
classes do more follow-up work than others in the way of defining
terms, explaining objects or processes, and the like. Some
teachers plan their geography work to concur with films correlat-
ing with their work. Smaller children are given drill in speech
reading after the showing. The teacher asks questions based on
the film, the answers are spoken and then written into notebooks.

An example is given of the way in which a film was used
to teach time clauses in grammar. From the film, Our Daily

178 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Bread, children were asked to finish incomplete and elliptical
sentences as follows :

As soon as the wheat was ripe
Before the wheat was ground

before the reaper was invented,
while the men were threshing the

wheat.

The people used a flail to thresh the grain (before, after) the
thresher was invented.

Prudhommeau, M. "Utlizing the Cinema for Teaching
Abnormal Children." International Review of Educational
Cinematography. 6:747-61. November 1934.

These recommendations are based on experiences with chil-
dren in a government school for the improvement of abnormal
children. The school comprised all types of mental deficients.
One of the first observations to be made is that the collective
reactions of abnormal children who are full of interest are the
same as those produced on normal children under the same
conditions.

Some observations from the use of the cinema :

1. The abnormal child's faculties of understanding and
perception are very limited. The teacher must take care to avoid
errors which might be unimportant for normal children, but
against which such children would have no proper defense. The
teacher must, then, be sure that the children are in a state to
understand as far as it is possible, what they will see on the
screen. The teacher should use the film as a tool, and the chil-
dren should be made to realize that films can be a source of
error. The success or failure of a lesson aided by a film depends
to a large extent upon the amount of preparation on the part
of the teacher.

2. Should showings be in the classroom or in special halls?
Either is desirable, although one or the other is preferable at
times.

3. Should the film be shown before or after the lesson ?
Although the opportunity is not always afforded for preparation
where a film is shown outside the classroom, it is usually desirable
for the teacher to prepare the children for what they are going

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USE 179

to see. The film showing may be continuous or interrupted by
comment. Everything depends upon the nature of the film, the
result aimed at, and the reactions of the children.

A teacher of "improvement" classes is fortunate in having no
other object than education. He has not to bother about ex-
aminations and their results. This gives him plenty of latitude
in the choice of his means of teaching and the subjects to be
dealt with.

Teachers' manuals cannot take the place of a preview of the
film itself by the teacher. Such manuals should not tell how
the teacher should prepare the class, or what questions to ask.
It ought to contain for the benefit of the teacher, an analysis
of the film, with particulars of its various parts and the explana-
tions for a proper undersanding of certain passages.

4. Silent or sound films? Although the sound film has
a special attraction for children and exercises a profounder
psychological influence than the silent picture on many pupils,
some silent films exercise such a great attraction on these ab-
normal children that sound is unnecessary. The interest which
leads a child to follow the action from beginning to end is so
powerful that it can be transferred from the film itself to the
person who presents the film. This strengthens the contention
that it is not the film which teaches, but the teacher. With
respect to talking films, the remarks of the teacher are preferable
to the mechanical commentator. Even films where natural sound
is used are disappointing, since the sounds are dubbed and music
is usually inserted to fill in an interval.

5. Fixed or moving projection? Fixed projection should
be employed in cases where no movement is necessary. Slides
do not contrast with motion pictures; indeed they supplement
them.

Parnes, Jean (Burnet School, Newark, NJ.) "The Use of
Visual' Aids for the Subnormal Child." Educational Screen.
10:76-7. March 1931.

Motion pictures, exhibits, slides, and specimens from the
Newark Department of Visual Education were very helpful in
guiding desirable social attitudes, fostering self-confidence, and
developing fluency of expression among subnormal children.

180 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Lee, Ettie (Mt. Vernon Junior High School) "Highway
Safety." Los Angeles School Journal 14:16-19. June 27,
1931.

i: As the result of a serious accident which befell a student of
the school, the safety activity was stimulated. The showing
of the Yale film, Daniel Boone, served to carry this interest
still further, because Boone was depicted as a safe adventurer,
one who took every precaution to protect himself and his com-
panions from unnecessary exposure and danger.

The children planned an "all-singing, all-talking, all-color"
production to bring to the foreground their attitudes on safety.
Among the activities which this production involved were :
making maps to scale, constructing bridges to illustrate educa-
tion, engineering, and enforcement in safety, knowledge of
safety laws, science, biography, arts, language, playwriting,
editing, typing, and other subjects.

Stack, Herbert J. (Director, Education Division, National
Bureau of Casualty and Surety Underwriters) "Teaching
Safety through Visual Education." Educational Screen. 15 :
82-4. March 1936.

The program of safety education in the New York City
schools has been enriched by the introduction of a great variety
of visual aids which are presented by special WPA teachers.
These teachers visit the classrooms of a number of schools and,
with the aid of motion pictures, slides, and posters they tend
to develop habits of precaution among the children.

The use of slides involves a definite teaching technique.
Slides should be accompanied by pupil participation. Each
set is accompanied by a manuscript, which contains stories to
be related or read to the children. In some cases pupils are
called on to relate or read the story, or this opportunity is given
after the visual lesson.

When using motion pictures, the teacher is provided with a
synopsis. After some preparation, the film is shown, check
tests given, and classroom discussion provided. This technique
involves three steps in the educational process: a felt problem,
the consideration of the problem in the film, checking knowledge
acquired, and coming to conclusions through the check test or
through the discussion. Copies of the check tests for each
film are available to other teachers who desire them.

SECONDARY SCHOOL USE 181

Certain cautions are offered to the safety teachers when
using visual materials :

1. Pupil participation through discussion results in greater
learning than a lecture furnished only by a teacher.

2. Slides should be used seasonally, stressing the kind of
safety most important during the current month.

3. Films should be used in classrooms rather than with
large groups in the assembly hall. Teachers should be provided
with facilities for previewing, and manuals as well as check tests
and questions for discussion.

III. TEACHING WITH THE MOTION PICTURE AND OTHER
VISUAL AIDS IN THE JUNIOR AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS

A consideration of the trends in using motion pictures
and other visual aids in secondary education must recognize
two conditions which prevail in most situations : first, that
secondary education is departmentalized and teachers are
subject-matter specialists in their respective fields; and
secondly, that this departmentalization has tended to segre-
gate the work of each class to the extent that an indication
of teaching with visual aids in one subject in a given high
school is no evidence that this trend applies to other depart-
ments of the school, or to similar departments in the school
system.

One of the advantages of having a subject-matter special-
ist in the secondary school is that such a person makes an
effort to be kept informed of developments in his field, and
when convinced of the value of using supplementary teaching
materials, is alert to the importance of initiating a visual
education program. Teachers of science, including the
natural and physical sciences, have, according to the available
articles, used the motion picture in most systematic fashion.
The reason for this is apparently that science has always been
taught by the laboratory method and the motion picture,

182 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

lantern slide, or filmslide are substitutes for an actual demon-
stration in the laboratory. The funds for laboratory equip-
ment in science departments usually make provision for the
purchase and maintenance of projection equipment, and sci-
ence teachers, having acquired a facility for manipulating
mechanical apparatus, are less likely to be apprehensive of
a motion picture projector than would other teachers.

The next subject matter field in popularity is that of
geography and the social studies on the secondary level.
Teachers of commercial subjects, vocational and industrial
classes, secondary English classes, and foreign language
classes are increasingly becoming interested in using these
materials. However, there is no way of knowing to what
extent these articles actually represent school practice. They
are only what has appeared in print.

The articles which were reviewed for this section repre-
sent an improvement over those of the preceding one, in
that teachers have been more specific in supplying the infor-
mation which their teacher-readers need. The objectives to
be served by visual aids, the sources of materials, their value
and practicability have been indicated more often by secon-
dary teachers, as the following pages will illustrate.

The articles by Rosenblum, Skimin, Hotchkiss, and Lynch
are particularly noteworthy. 7

The reports indicate that in general, secondary teachers
are more aware than are elementary teachers of materials
already in existence, and when they find such materials want-
ing, they are increasingly resorting to the production of new
materials which will have recurring use. The practice among
elementary school teachers is to make the construction of
materials a culminating class activity for a unit of work,
whereas the high school teacher will use such materials as a
teaching aid or source of information. The articles by

7 Pages 189, 187, 191, 219.

SECONDARY SCHOOL USE 183

Rosenblum, Williams, Skimin, and Gramet 8 indicate such
practice.

Secondary school teachers use motion pictures and other
visual aids to serve the following purposes :

1. As background for a unit

2. To stimulate interest or develop an appreciation

3. As actual teaching aid, or direct source of information

4. To sensitize students to social problems

5. As aids to pupil activity

6. As review of a unit

7. For testing

This section has been classified by subjects. Where an
author made mention of other subjects of the curriculum,
these have been cross-referenced in the index.

An interesting survey was made a few years ago by Bard
of the extent to which secondary school teachers of Ohio
received and used projection equipment and materials. His
findings with respect to teaching techniques are here sum-
marized because the trends may be applied to other school
situations in a similar way.

Bard, C. L. "A Study of the Administration of Projector
Apparatus in the Secondary Schools of Ohio." Chapter VI.
Unpublished M.A. thesis. Ohio State University. Columbus.
1931.

A detailed questionnaire submitted to a number of secondary
schools in Ohio revealed the following information regarding
techniques of use :

Many high schools permit pupils to operate their projectors.
Some prefer to hire an outside operator. Such money could
be more efficiently used for purchasing and renting materials,
and high school pupils trained to operate the projectors.

Kinds of films shown: Of the 215 high schools reporting,
99 stated that they showed general educational films. Specific
educational films were shown by 79 schools, 58 reported that
they showed films for entertainment, and 22 reported that they
showed films to develop an appreciation for good pictures.

8 Part Four, page 295.

184 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

To whom the films are shown : Of the high schools answer-
ing, 34 reported that they always show pictures to the whole
school at once. In 77 instances it was reported that both methods
of showing to the whole school at once and to special classes
were used. Film showings for homogeneous groups were always
used in 30 schools, and sometimes in 48 schools. Thirty-three
schools show films at Parent-Teacher meetings.

When films are shown : Fifty-two of the schools use motion
pictures at a definite period each week. Forty-two present films
according to a schedule that meets class needs. Forty high
schools report showing motion pictures sporadically, 36 show
films only in the evening before the public, and 5 show them to
pupils at noon. Many schools reported using films for special
classes, such as agriculture, biology, chemistry, commercial sub-
jects, English, and the like.

Number of minutes per week devoted to motion pictures:
In 17 of the schools reporting, films are shown fifteen minutes
per week. Thirty minutes per week were allotted in 42 schools,
and forty-five minutes in 14 schools. Six high schools reported
that they devote more than 150 minutes per week to motion
pictures. These latter, incidentally, were all city high schools.

Preparation for film showings: Twenty- four high schools
reported that teachers preview the films before showing them.
Lesson plans (when available) are used by 45 schools, occa-
sionally by 40 schools, only when urged by 8 schools, and never
by 25 schools.

Preparation of pupils for film showings: Many schools
did not answer this question, but some of those reporting do
not require special preparation for film showings. Some form
of preparation, ranging from fifteen minutes to sixty minutes
was required in 68 per cent of the cases.

Methods of explanation before a picture is shown: A large
per cent of the high schools give the pupils a general explana-
tion of the film before showing. Many lecture during the show-
ing. This method is satisfactory only when the projector can
be stopped while the teacher takes time to explain certain points
of especial interest. Many of the schools use textbook correla-
tion. Other methods used were: general explanation before
showing, merely pointing out the main points, and in some cases,
no explanation at all.

SECONDARY SCHOOL USE 185

Discussion after a picture is shown: Nine schools did not
discuss a picture in class after it was shown. Discussion for
about fifteen minutes was permitted in 53 schools, for thirty
minutes in 25 cases, for forty-five minutes in 13 schools, and
for sixty minutes in 3 schools. The majority of the high schools
require some discussion of the films after they are shown.

The extent to which motion picture information is included
in final examinations or final grades: The majority of the
schools indicated that they did not base any of their final ex-
aminations or final grades upon the pictures shown. About one-
third of them base from 10 to 20 per cent of the final exam-
ination or final grade upon the pictures shown. These results
indicate one of two things, either most of the persons filling
out this questionnaire did not understand that the use of motion
pictures is a teaching procedure and should be regarded as
such, or the use of films is still a comparatively young practice,
and is as yet but little understood by the persons administering
them.

The article by Katz presents the aspects of art education
which may be treated through motion pictures. The author
has also given existing motion picture titles to be used in
achieving the objectives of art education. Since the publica-
tion of this article, several additional films have been pro-
duced and indications are that more will be developed as art
educators become aware of the potentiality of the motion
picture.

Katz, Elias (Graduate student, Teachers College, Columbia
University, N.Y.) "Educational Possibilities of Motion Pic-
ture Films in Art Courses." Educational Screen. 13 :97.
April 1934.

There are many aspects of art education which suitable
motion pictures can enrich :

1. The teaching of the history of art, for which a few
films have already been made, namely :

Temples and Tombs of Ancient Egypt (Metropolitan
Museum of Art), a travel film showing important
existing monuments.

186 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

The Hidden Talisman (Museum of Art), a historical

film showing medieval life.
The Pottery Maker (Museum of Art), a masterpiece

of art showing the American art of the 1860's.
Ten Commandments, King of Kings, M. Beaucaire, and

other theatrical productions.

2. The teaching of the appreciation of art, exemplified by
such films :

Twenty-Four Dollar Island, a travel film by Robert
Flaherty showing magnificent views of N.Y.C. Con-
tains fine arrangement of line, mass, and tone in archi-
tecture. (Pathe)

The Spectre, a historical film showing costumes and
architecture of Colonial times. (Museum of Art)

Etcher's Art, a biographical film of Frank Benson and
others.

Glass Blowing, with Specimens of Ancient and Medieval
Glass, a process film giving a critical appreciation of
glass ware.

The Gorges of the Giants, a Fox Movietone of natural
beauty, showing beautiful arrangements of moving line
and tone.

3. The actual practice of art may be supplemented by such
films as :

Models in Motion (Eastman), in which drawing is
stimulated.

Animated lines or scenic effects may be demonstrated through
films. In design and composition, abstract purposive films of
natural beauty could here also be used. Films give a clearer
insight into technical processes when simply demonstrated, and
will indirectly aid in manipulation.

The use of films for teaching certain skills in drawing
has already been illustrated. Two teachers of typewriting
and stenography have realized the possibility of using an
original motion picture to illustrate proper technique for
teaching the skills of their respective subjects. The articles
by Skimin and Wood, furthermore, place the motion picture
in its framework to fit the course in beginning typing and
stenography.

SECONDARY SCHOOL USE 187

Rosenblum studied the findings of a survey on "Visual
Aids in Business Education" and proceeded to make a unique
contribution to his field by developing a series of filmslide
lessons on certain topics in accountancy. These are used as
drill materials. Two articles describing his work are sum-
marized here.

Skimin, Eleanor (Detroit, Michigan) "Motivating the
Writing of Shorthand through the Use of Motion Pictures."
Eastern Commercial Teachers Association Yearbook. 6 :232.
1933.

A motion picture, Correct Shorthand Technique, was de-
veloped by the writer at Washington State College.

The broad objectives to be served by the film: There is
a necessity for developing correct habits of writing in short-
hand. The steps in the learning process as outlined by Morrison
are: setting the model, imitation, criticism, and drill. On the
part of the learner they are: getting an idea of what is to be
done, trying to do it, finding out whether the effort is successful
or not, and drill, drill, drill. The motion picture is used to
set the model.

Specific objectives to be served by the film: This film is
in keeping with the philosophy that dictation should begin early
in the shorthand course, and that the program should blend
writing, reading, and transcription from the outset. Early dicta-
tion, then, should give adequate attention to correct habits of
writing, to guidance, and stimulation.

Description of the motion picture: The position of the body
and arms in taking dictation is an important factor in the
beginning stages of learning shorthand, as are correct hand
movements, rhythm, and repetition. These are all clearly shown
in the film.

Evaluation of the film in the light of these objectives : The
film aids in developing from the outset correct habits of writing.
The pupil is getting dictation down at the beginning at 60 to 80
words per minute with the greatest ease and skill, yet the men-
tion of speed has been given little consideration. His mind can
be directed later to what is being written, but at the beginning
he is intent upon how. The student is brought into the proper

188 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

attitude toward his work, and transcription of his notes on the
typewriter can and should begin from the first days of learning.

Skimin, Eleanor (Northern High School, Detroit) and
Wood, Ethel (State College of Washington, Pullman)
"Motion Pictures: A Device in the Teaching of Typewrit-
ing." Educational Screen. 13 :265. December 1934.

The motion picture, Teaching Beginners How to Type-
write, illustrates the fundamental typewriter operations, such as
correct stroking, correct use of the shift key, proper carriage
return, rhythm, inserting and removing paper, use of tabulator
key, and so on. The picture also illustrates definitely that
increased speed comes from increased finger action when writing
habits are correctly established during the early learning periods.

This teaching device will increase the effectiveness of in-
struction over the oral class analysis of finger exercises letter
by letter. The film facilitates the learning process, prevents and
eliminates tendencies to incorrect learning, and controls the
physiological and psychological conditions under which the pupil
must learn.

Rosenblum, Irving (Franklin K. Lane High School, Brook-
lyn, N.Y.) "An Accounting Lesson on a Roll of Film."
High Points. 19, no. 5 :60-4. May 1937.

This article is a report upon the progress made by two
teachers in the preparation of home-made films and slides for
use as lessons in accounting and related subjects. Two com-
pleted units were exhibited before the Association of Account-
ing Chairmen by C. A. Gramet, first assistant in biology, and
the writer co-authors of the accounting lessons.

How the problem originated: The findings of a survey pub-
lished in the Journal of Business Education in 1933 reporting
available "Visual Aids in Business Education," revealed that:

1. There were no films prepared for instruction in account-
ing.

2. There were many that might be suitable for use in busi-
ness training classes.

3. The films were produced by business firms, chiefly for
advertising purposes. Exception is noted in favor of the stenog-
raphy and typing films by Skimin and Wood. 9

g See articles above.

SECONDARY SCHOOL USE 189

4. Development of a film library, based on existing mate-
rials, might be begun.

5. Commercial subjects offer a fertile field for application
of visual devices.

The question is asked, "If a film is needed for use as a
lesson, should it not be prepared with some regard for the
recognized principles of pedagogy?"

What has been done:

1. An opaque projector is being used to correct homework
in bookkeeping, eliminating waste of time in ruling forms on
the blackboard. More time is thereby permitted for remedial
lessons.

2. Plans have been made for a series of films for use in
business training classes. These plans are consistent with the
courses of study in that field in the schools of New Jersey, New
York State, Idaho, Virginia, and in the cities of Lansing,
St. Louis, Denver, Philadelphia, and New York. Among the
subjects already prepared for photographing are lessons on:
Purchases Routine, Preparation of the Payroll, Shipping by
Rail, Filing, and Business Papers. These lessons have been
planned so that they may be applied to business arithmetic,
bookkeeping, and business law.

3. Certain topics in bookkeeping have been developed on
film, such as: Interpretation of Financial Statements, Source
of Bookkeeping Record, Closing Entries, and the Merchandise
Cycle.

4. Lantern slides on law and two rolls of filmslide on
accountancy were presented as an illustration of the technique
employed.

What is to be done: A committee of commercial teachers
should be organized to investigate the possibilities of visual
education. Teachers should also be secured who would be
willing to make experimental use of these materials. And a
film library should be inaugurated at once as the starting point
for a more extensive program.

Rosenblum, Irving (Franklin K. Lane High School, N.Y.)
"Film Slide Lessons in Accounting." Educational Screen.
14:232. October 1935.

With the cooperation of another teacher experienced in
photography, a series of film slides was produced to assist in

190 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

teaching the unit, "Closing the Ledger" in elementary and
advanced accounting. They were prepared to fill a definite
need on the part of a busy teacher for some condensed and
permanent form of the various types of entries required in
bookkeeping. The topic requires so many blackboard illustra-
tions that it is seldom reviewed by teachers, but merely passed
over with a casual remark. The film slide was used in prefer-
ence to glass slides because a definite sequence was desired,
and for its compactness and permanence. Although the cost is
greater, the results justify it.

The filmslide lesson shows clearly that the entire accounting
procedure is merely a technical manner of recording and report-
ing the elementary problem solved mathematically at the begin-
ning of the lesson. A multiple approach, through arithmetic,
through a statement of profit and loss, and through the ledger
insures an understanding of the closing records. Three times
in the course of the film lesson, opportunities are provided for a
summary of the knowledge gained. The Sales Income account
permits a review of the trading section of the Profit and Loss
Statement, and the arithmetical computation of gross profit
from figures of sale and cost. The Profit and Loss account
affords a similar opportunity for discovering the relationship
between "overhead" expenses and the operating section in the
Profit and Loss Statement. A chart at the end summarizes the
sequence of the transfer entries.

A second filmslide lesson has been prepared for advanced
classes in accountancy.

The social science area on the secondary level presents
many possibilities for the profitable use of films. The ex-
periences of Hotchkiss in a Chicago school, where films were
used as an integral part of a unit in American History,
should prove unusually valuable to other teachers. The
reader is referred to the original article for more adequate
description than can be furnished by an abstract.

The article by Sharpe reveals the many types of interests
which can be developed and encouraged through an efficient
social studies laboratory in a school using the activity pro-
gram of instruction.

SECONDARY SCHOOL USE 191

Rothfuss, Halsey, Thralls, Olsen, and Williams have
given fine evidence of the integrated use of all visual aids for
developing their respective units. Rothfuss applied his mate-
rials to a unit on Abraham Lincoln; Halsey used visual aids
for a unit on the insular possessions of the United States;
Thralls was concerned with developing, with a class in com-
mercial geography, proper insight into the coffee industry
in its world relations; Olsen, as curator of a school museum
in a commercial high school, indicates how the materials for
classes in economic geography vary from actual specimens,
models, charts, and similar realia to the projected picture
in the form of slides, filmslides, or motion pictures showing
the processes involved in manufacture. The unit on New
England capes, developed by Williams, is well integrated,
indicating that ample opportunity was afforded for pupil
participation.

Brown provides a summary of the methods used by
twenty teachers in junior high school history. Many of
these suggestions will be of value to teachers interested in
promoting pupil activity in connection with visual aids.

Hotchkiss, Grace (Hyde Park High School, Chicago) "The
Use of the Motion Picture as a Technique of Instruction."
Social Studies. 28:6-13. January 1937.

The use of the motion picture as a planned and regular
technique of instruction in U.S. History II classes was the
subject of an experiment conducted at Hyde Park High School
during the spring semester, 1936.

Subject matter: The eight units of the second semester's
work in American history were studied, and a list of films suit-
able for each unit compiled. At the close of the course, one
motion picture was used as part of the review work. The films,
with one exception, fall into two general classes, first those
pictures which trace historically the development of some aspect
of the unit; and those which illustrate the characteristics of the
unit or of some aspect of the unit. The motion picture Head-
lines of a Century is in itself a review of the outstanding

192 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

features in the social, economic, and political life of the Amer-
ican nation for the last half century and was consequently used
as review.

Instructional activities: The motion pictures for the unit
were listed as part of the reference material on the mime-
ographed lesson sheet distributed to students. The special type
of activity employed in the study of a picture was part of the
preliminary instructions for the unit study. Some of the activi-
ties which related to films were: a series of questions especially
planned to show the relationship of the picture information to
the unit ; a skeleton outline to be developed into an informational
outline ; a summary, emphasizing the outstanding features of
the picture and showing how the study of the film aided in the
understanding of the unit; a list of general principles to be
proved by illustrative material from the film, organized together
with other references into a chart; a series of events to be
arranged in time order; and maps, charts or graphs based on
information in the film.

Activities during the class hour in which the picture is
shown can be managed in several ways. As a usual practice,
the class watched a sound film through with no discussion unless
some pupil asked for a second showing of a part of the film,
or asked that the picture be stopped at a special scene for
additional explanation.

Some of the techniques used with the silent film were : lecture
by one pupil; lecture by the teacher; informal comments by the
teacher ; a committee report, with several pupils taking part ; a
lecture by an authority from within or outside the school; a
question and answer recitation, in which the questions do not
detract from the film.

Follow-up procedure : It is imperative that some class time
immediately following the showing of the film be devoted to
a discussion. Especially is this -true for the first few pictures,
in order to offset the impression that movies are intended for
recreation. There was no assigned method of recitation for the
follow-up period. Whatever the type of procedure used, it must
serve to realize one aim, that of broadening the concept of the
unit through the illustrative material provided in the film.

Testing: A brief class test, either new type or essay, is
an excellent method to use in the follow-up recitation. It was

SECONDARY SCHOOL USE 193

customary in this experiment to give a test at the completion
of each unit. The film material had a definite place in this test.
Knowledge gained from the study of a picture was found to be
more effectively reviewed if the pupil expected to be responsible
for using it.

Evaluation of results: The results of this experiment are
difficult to separate in any scientific manner, since the number
of pupils involved was small, and since the motion pictures were
only one of several sources contributing to the mastery of the
unit. One result, however, was the enjoyment of the pupils,
bringing with it concentrated attention and interesting follow-up
periods. Another result was the fact that a larger proportion
of the class succeeded in answering those questions on the unit
test which were based on the film than those based on the read-
ings. An average of 85 per cent answered correctly questions
based on class discussion, and an average of 91 per cent gave
correct answers to questions based on the films. It was not
possible to judge results as accurately for those questions which
were based on a variety of experiences.

Provision for individual differences: The superior students
prepared lectures to be given to explain the silent film, or served
as chairmen of committees making group reports. Students
who did not have the ability to make sustained reports for an
entire film gave very creditable talks in connection with com-
mittee reports.

New avenues of interest opened up by the movies were
investigated by the abler students who volunteered additional
reports. One girl followed up a picture on women in industry
by correspondence with the Women's Bureau, which resulted
in an illustrated report on "The Present Status of Women in
Industry." A boy made a tour of CCC camps in the immediate
vicinity to supplement the film on CCC camps. Two pupils,
interested in the personnel of the TVA, carried on a cor-
respondence with the president of Antioch College, who is also
in charge of the Tennessee Valley Authority, with the conse-
quence that these pupils entered Antioch College after graduating
from the high school.

Children of meager opportunity and slow intellect were
especially aided by the films in learning the details of mass
production, the influence of labor saving machinery, the preci-

194 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

sion of modern manufacturing, the evolution of the airplane,
and other such technicalities of modern industry.

Socialising experiences: Very beneficial social experiences
arise from the motion picture program. Through the film the
classroom is broadened into a new, vivid world of which each
pupil becomes a part. The motion picture as a form of recre-
ation can be considered, the cultural appreciation of art and
music can be broadened. A film on American Art, for example,
served to introduce the foundation of understanding of modern
American painting. Pictures on the World War and peace
were the focal points for a discussion of the individual's duty
in aiding in the preservation of peace. The TVA film, the
one on soil erosion campaigns, and the one treating the fight
against disease served to widen the pupil's knowledge of the
social responsibilities of American citizens. Contact with the
occupational world was built up through films to establish a
background of experience. The evolution of the oil industry,
the activities of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the
stock market developed an understanding of occupations and
the nature of the work of the world, as well as the social and
economic significances of various aspects of the occupational
world.

Opportunities for group work were many. Group reports
given in the classroom to accompany a film showing, a com-
mittee in charge of returning films to the distributor, a com-
mittee which ordered the films and called for them, a committee
working on a time schedule for showing the films, for reserving
the machine and operators, a committee of superior students
to help in selecting the films for the course, a committee to
arrange for previewing these made provision for participation
by every member of the class. The committees worked during
the class hour, as well as before and after school.

Mechanics of the film program: The school owned a 16mm.
sound projector, a 16mm. silent machine, and a portable screen.
Student operators were trained by one of the science teachers
and a schedule worked out for them by which they did not lose
class time in operating the machines. The science teacher took
care of all the mechanical details involved in the film program.

Financing the film program: Of the 35 films used in the
experiment, twenty-seven were loaned free of charge, the only
expense being cost of transportation. One rental film was paid

SECONDARY SCHOOL USE 195

for by the family of a pupil. The entire cost of the program
was $27, of which $15 was expended for one film. The school
had a small general fund for rentals and postage. The class
members were asked to contribute five cents each toward rental
fees, if they so wished. Many pupils offered more with the
remark that admission to commercial movies cost much more.
Sometimes two or three teachers working in the same field
arranged their class programs to use the same picture, and con-
tributed toward the payment. In this manner rental, postage,
and a small surplus were realized on each rental film. The most
expensive film was Headlines of a Century, which was used
by all teachers of American and Modern History. In all, there
were 64 reels of film borrowed during the semester. The aver-
age cost was slightly over 40 cents per reel for five hundred
pupils.

Details of management :

1. Two reels of film are best for a 40-minute class period,
if time for setting up and removing machines, and for discus-
sion is to be provided.

2. Films can be shown effectively in an average classroom
with ordinary window shades drawn.

3. The classroom is the best place to use for showing films.
Grouping of several classes renders the group spirit, a social
rather than an intellectual occasion. The teacher finds the
development of a proper audience attitude the main concern
of the period, rather than the enrichment of pupils' experiences
in the interpretation of a history unit.

4. Sound films are better in a large auditorium; silent films,
however, are as effective as sound. The latter require more
careful follow-up discussion, since the comment of the speaker
are not strictly in keeping with the classroom work. The school
is beginning to assemble films which will have a constant educa-
tional value. Films for use in social sciences, however, are
either free or are too prohibitive in price to be purchased.

5. A teacher cannot efficiently present a motion picture to
a class unless he is familiar with it.

6. Until a teacher has experimented with motion pictures
over a period of time, the only way he can arrange a program
is by use of the trial and error method. Titles and advertising
matter do not always give sufficient background for the film

196 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

7. A list of motion pictures should be planned when the
course is planned. They should be as important in the course
as any other reference materials, and should be reserved well
in advance.

In planning the film program for this experiment, the teacher
and the student committee canvassed the exhaustive film catalogs
put out by commercial companies. In the same manner the
catalogues of agencies handling free films were checked. A
tentative program was laid out. Pupils wrote to the producers
for additional explanatory information on the pictures chosen.
In the light of these findings, a final list was made out. Free
films were reserved at once. When it seemed impossible to get
a rental film from any free source, and when no free one was
found to substitute it, the rental film was reserved.

Conclusions: The increased interest in class work, the keen
enjoyment of the film recitation, and the really excellent work
of many pupils seem to justify the film program in this subject,
United States History. One pupil made this parting observation,
"It's great to have learned to use a movie like you use a book."

Tables appended to the article :

I. Alphabetical index of motion pictures, with addresses of

distributors.

II. Relationship of the motion pictures to the units of instruc-
tion.
III. Films classified on a basis of treatment of subject matter

A. Films which are historical in development of subject

B. Films which are descriptive of present day conditions.

Sharpe, Florence (Belmont High School, Los Angeles)
"The Social Studies Laboratory." Los Angeles School
Journal. 14:7-10. June 27, 1931.

The social science laboratory developed at the Belmont High
School has taken on the practical character which has heretofore
been attributed only to the field of the exact sciences.

The laboratory began as a projection room for films and
slides. The projection machines were kept running four days
a week, nine periods a day, with from two to three reels of
film running each period. The films had been previewed by the
teachers before showing.

A World War Museum was then placed in the room and
circulated throughout the various departments. Stillfilms, slides,

SECONDARY SCHOOL USE 197

stereographs, wall charts, pictures, graphs, blackboard drawings,
relics, maps, and plans were added to the collection. Gradually
this room became so popular that another room had to be
annexed. Here at long laboratory tables students in economic
geography worked out problems by doing. They used a sand
table, plastic clay, soap, etc., and invited guest speakers from
industrial organizations. One outcome of this laboratory was
an interest in books as a means of acquiring necessary and
highly desired knowledge.

It was concluded by the teacher that a visual education
program may be handled more easily under an activity cur-
riculum than would be possible under any other system.

Rothfuss, Howard (Thomas A. Edison School, Cleveland,
Ohio) "Visual Education Project on the Life of Abraham
Lincoln." Educational Screen. 10:8-10. January 1931.

The steps in the development, and some related activities are :

1. Lantern slides depicting the public and private life of
Abraham Lincoln were shown and discussed by the teacher
while the pupils listened attentively. They were not permitted
to ask questions during the first lesson. The slides were shown
again the next period, with questions by the teacher and then
by the pupils. The period of discussion worked up interest and
a desire for more materials.

2. The boys formulated questions based on the slides and
sought the answers in reference books. The students decided
to build an exhibit of articles from the different periods of
Lincoln's life, including a log cabin, books he read when a boy,
the ax he used and rails he split, the store and post-office where
he was known as 'Honest Abe', his first law book, and the like.

3. English, history, art, and shop teachers were called in
to cooperate in the project.

4. A study sheet was prepared by the auditorium teacher
and used following the lesson with slides. It contained quota-
tions from Lincoln's speeches, which the class memorized. A
few sketches from his life were dramatized.

5. The boys were responsible for preparing reports on the
articles to be used in the exhibit.

6. A final test to measure achievement was administered.

198 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

7. The motion picture, Land of Opportunity, was shown
to illustrate Lincoln's keen wit.

Some of the understandings which resulted from this project
were :

(a) An interesting study of Lincoln's life.

(b) Places he lived, located on the map.

(c) Type of conditions, and the effect of environment on

Lincoln's life.

(d) The real character of Lincoln, as illustrated by his deal-

ings with others, and by his speeches.

(e) The duties of the President, his worries and cares, his

enemies, political courtesies, office seekers, and finally
the Civil War.

(f) Integration of English, art, and shop work with history.

Halsey, James H. (Instructor in Geography, High School,
Hammond, Indiana) "An Experiment in Geography Teach-
ing." Educational Screen. 15:137-40. May 1936.

This unit was prepared in the form of a small experiment
to determine whether the use of visual aids in the conventional
classroom would help the students acquire more knowledge; and
secondly, to determine whether the use of visual aids with a
modified teaching technique and class plan would be better than
using visual aids in the conventional class plan.

The conventional class plan is defined as that using daily
assignments, class recitation and discussion, and supervised class
study. The modified teaching technique eliminated homework
assignments and used the informal-lecture discussion method.

Three classes of pupils about fifteen years of age were used.
The Control Group numbered 29 pupils. They were taught the
unit on "Insular Possessions of the U.S." in the conventional
classroom manner without the use of films or slides. Experi-
mental Group I, numbering 29 pupils, were given similar instruc-
tion, except that films and slides were shown. Experimental
Group II, numbering 22 pupils, were taught by the modified
teaching procedure, using motion pictures and slides.

A comparison of the general ability of the three groups with
respect to their median intelligence scores, median scores on a
standard test in United States geography, and median scores
on a pretest of the insular possessions of the United States
revealed that the Control Group had the highest general ability,
Experimental Group I the second highest, and Experimental

SECONDARY SCHOOL USE 199

Group II the lowest general ability. The objective test given
before and after the experiment was of the multiple choice type,
being almost all factual instead of thought-provoking, as it was
believed the former was a truer test of the information and
knowledge acquired.

The results of the experiment, as indicated by the scores on
the end-test, are in exactly opposite order to the results that
might be expected from the general abilities of the three groups.
Experimental Group II, having the modified teaching technique
with visual aids, made the highest scores. Experimental Group I,
having visual aids and the conventional teaching methods, with
textbook, made the second highest scores. The Control Group,
having seen no films or slides, made the lowest scores.

Conclusions :

In addition to the increase in knowledge and information
which resulted, there were other advantages, such as new inter-
ests and attitudes, none of which could be measured. The
thoughtful questions asked by the students in the two experi-
mental groups, as well as their genuine interest and enthusiasm
during class, are somewhat indicative of these advantages.
Whether these groups will retain more than the control group
will be measured by a retention test.

The evidence definitely shows that visual aids are an ad-
vantage in teaching. However, in order to achieve the best
results with visual aids, the ordinary teaching methods and
classroom management need to be modified.

The plan used with Experimental Group II was to lecture
at the beginning of the class on the subject for that day. Then
the films and slides were projected and the various scenes care-
fully explained and elaborated. While the pictures were being
shown, many questions were asked and very often spirited dis-
cussions occurred. Always at these moments the slides were
left projected and the films stopped or run over. If any time
remained after the pictures were shown, some of the more
difficult matters were again discussed.

Thralls, Zoe A. (Assistant Professor of Geography, Univ. of
Pittsburgh) "The Use of Visual Materials in Commercial
Geography." Eastern Commercial Teachers Association
Yearbook, 8:78-83. 1935.

Pupils must have an adequate basis for thinking geographi-
cally. The use of visual materials in commercial geography is

200 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

an essential means for developing accurate concepts. These
materials must be properly organized and planned. In the first
place, the visual aid must be the type best suited to develop
the concept needed; secondly, it must be an integral part of the
instructional unit; and lastly, it must be used under appropriate
guidance.

A unit in commercial geography dealing with the "Coffee
Industry in Its World Relations," was introduced through picto-
graphs, bar graphs, and maps. Five topics were assigned, with
problems involving reasoning and comparisons under each.

The fundamental principles in selecting and using visual aids
which a teacher should consider are:

1. The type of material used in a specific situation should
be the one that presents the desired information most
effectively and economically.

2. The teacher must know the specific, distinctive function
of each type and how to fit it into the instructional unit.

3. Pupil must be given something definite to find when using
the material, and the information he is asked to find must
be needed at that time.

4. Pupil must be trained to check information gained from
one source against that secured from another.

Olsen, Estelle (Curator, Commercial Museum, High School
of Commerce, New York City) 'The Use of Visual Ma-
terials in the High School of Commerce." Eastern Commer-
cial Teachers Association Yearbook. 6:208-13. 1933.

The Commercial Museum, located in the basement of the
High School of Commerce since 1928, caters particularly to the
needs of students and teachers of economic geography. It in-
cludes a visual instruction room, equipped with 35mm. silent
projector, a stereopticon, an opaque lantern, globes, blackboards,
and the like; a study section, with cases, table displays, chairs
and desks; and a store room and preparation room with vertical
files, cabinets, and other materials.

Students report to the Museum on alternate weeks. The
course in economic geography, which requires a year for comple-
tion, is divided into two parts, first the Economic Geography
of the United States, and second, the Economic Geography of
Foreign Countries. On the even weeks students see films which
correlate directly with the subject studied in the classroom. The
films deal with processes in the manufacture of raw materials.

SECONDARY SCHOOL USE 201

The motion picture has been judged as the best medium for
illustrating these processes, and for showing the scenery, life,
agriculture, and industries of the countries studied.

An example of the way in which visual aids are correlated
with the course of study is evidenced by the following unit on
"Non-Ferreous Metals."

On an assigned period of the week, the pupils report to the
study section of the Commercial Museum. There they find
prepared for them samples of non-ferreous metals, such as
sheet zinc, galvanized steel sheet, steel sheet coated with zinc,
and so on. Each student is provided with a work sheet to
acquaint himself with some qualities of these materials. They
test the elasticity of heat; they compare weight of aluminum,
tin, copper, and lead; they compare the color of each, discuss
uses, and other aspects. Their notebook report, due after this
laboratory period, is amplified by material secured from texts
and reference books. Displays are secured from the large
manufacturing concerns through the supply office, or through
the resourcefulness of the curator.

The following week the students report with their parallel
class to the visual instruction section of the Museum. Here
they are shown two reels of the film, From Mine to Consumer,
on copper, and one reel on the method of obtaining sulphur by
the Frasch process. The teacher draws the attention of the
students to important features during the showing and while
the reels are being changed, the students make brief notations
in their notebooks to be used in the recitation period that follows.

The curator is constantly on the alert for new sources of
material, and displays are changed frequently.

Teachers of classes in domestic and foreign trade, chemistry,
English, journalism, art, and geography all make use of the
Museum. Students often apply to the Museum for help in
preparing illustrated talks.

Williams, Paul T. (Instructor in Social Studies, High School,
Ballston Spa, N.Y.) "A Visit to the New England Capes:
A Unit of Study in Economic Geography." Educational
Screen. 15:142-3, 173-5. May, June 1936.

The teacher selected this unit, "A Visit to the New England
Capes" because the New England coast, the ocean, the fishing,
the boats, the people have always been interesting to people of

202 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

all ages. Interest in the unit was aroused by the showing of
two carefully selected slides made from photographs which
the teacher had taken during a visit to that region. A relief
map of the region under discussion was the other type of visual
aid used in the introduction. The outcome of this lesson was
the development of an outline containing the phases of life in
the New England capes in which the students were interested.

It was planned that the information would be developed by
individual pupils, working in small groups, and presented to the
class through illustrated reports. A bibliography, suggested by
the teacher, gave the student assistance with respect to reference
books, sources of information, and sources of illustrative mate-
rials.

The student reports were adequately supplemented by maps,
slides, pictures, original sketches, and exhibits. The members
of the class made and brought in hand-made slides on a fishing
schooner, a sand dune, and a quarry. The class arranged an
excursion to the Automobile Club of Saratoga Springs and
Schnectady. They wrote to the Chambers of Commerce of the
towns which they were studying, and received circulars and
exhibits for further study. One of the important outcomes of
this unit was interest in reading about this section of the country.
The making of slides and amateur photography took on a new
meaning for the pupils, many of them developing these as
hobbies.

To summarize the unit, the teacher presented two short
films on the New England Fisheries. These films presented
the problems faced by fishermen, the hardships they endure
under severe weather, the methods of catching cod and mackerel,
and the process of preparing fish for market.

Some conclusions made by the teacher on the use of visual
aids are:

1. The scarcity of suitable material was formerly a handi-
cap. Now textbook illustrations are well selected to represent
accuracy and typical situations, and other visual aids which
approach reality more closely are more easily obtained than
heretofore.

2. The teacher should have in mind the social setting of
the unit and develop the details only in connection with the
background. The span of attention of the pupil is short. Each

SECONDARY SCHOOL USE 203

topic must be made vital to him and a real need for studying
it shown. Simplicity of instruction and understanding for sub-
ject matter should be aimed at throughout the unit of work.
The immediate reaction of the pupil to a new problem is vitally
important.

3. In every case the problem should be presented with an
interesting approach, often in story form followed by the show-
ing of one or two pictures. The slides or pictures should be
selected very carefully as to subject matter and only a few
should be used at a time. The illustrative material should be
designed to provoke questions rather than answer them. The
motion picture has a definite part in the summary of this unit,
in that it brings together the detached parts into a single unit
so that the pupil gets a mental grasp of the whole.

Brown, Harriet McCure (University of Southern California)
"Teaching Aids and Activities for Junior High School His-
tory." Historical Outlook. 21 :384-6. December 1930.

Some of the methods by which twenty teachers use films,
pictures, slides, stillfilms, realia, maps and the like in junior
high school history instruction may be summarized as follows:

Still pictures are used for making pictorial notebooks as
individual or class projects, on bulletin boards, for a permanent
picture file, to introduce a new topic, to help understand a
difficult subject, to illustrate oral reports, as foundation for oral
reports, as basis for written compositions, textbook illustrations
for observation, comprehension, and comparison, as a game,
to acquire information, for atmosphere, and for lectures.

Motion pictures are used to introduce a new unit, as part of
regular classroom instruction, to stimulate observation, to de-
velop written expression, for appreciation, for review, and for
quizzing.

Lantern slides are used to illustrate pupil reports, teacher
reports, to develop observation, and for review.

Still films are used like slides.

Source materials of history are used as visual aids. Pupils
contribute relics, start a permanent museum, have a discovery
day at local historical spots, visit museums, and prepare reports.

Other visual aids which may be used are the blackboard,
charts, diagrams, and time lines.

204 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Among the activities of history classes which were reported
were map making, slide making, dramatizations, writing activi-
ties stimulated by films, drawing activities including the cartoon,
construction activities, activities in reading stimulated by films
or slides.

The reports below are of especial interest to the teacher
of English. Lewin, in two articles, has correlated the use of
educational films with work in English. The theatrical
motion picture suggests many possibilities for developing
units in English classes. The course of study by Sterner and
Bowden offers specific guidance along this line. 10 The lesson
plan which has been so admirably developed by Newton
was concerned with the ways in which a current novel,
Arrowsmith, and possibly its motion picture transcription, can
assist in developing socially beneficial attitudes and ideals
among students of English. Other concomitant outcomes
are also described in this article. Similar projects might be
undertaken with more recent motion picture adaptations of
literary classics.

Lewin, William (Newark, NJ.) "Photoplays for Voca-
tional Guidance." Educational Screen. 6 :452-4. December
1927.

In a ninth-grade class the composition work was centered
about a series of one-reel films for a period of three months.
The pupils studied every film from occupational angles. Their
object was to gain vocational information and to point out the
requirements, the advantages, and the disadvantages of many
occupations. Some of the pictures were not very good, but
generally they were valuable in showing men and women at
work, often in interesting settings.

The experiment demonstrated forcefully that a one-reel pic-
ture requiring fifteen minutes for projection, and allowing
fifteen minutes for preparation, and fifteen minutes for im-
mediate reaction greatly enhanced the interest of the children
in their composition work. The problem of the children was

10 Appendix.

SECONDARY SCHOOL USE 205

no longer to go home and ponder how to fill up a page of
composition paper on the topic assigned, but rather how to say
in a fifteen minute theme all they would like to say on the
subject.

At the end of the term they all agreed that the one-reel
picture told them more in fifteen minutes in a dramatic way,
than anything they could have heard or read on the subject
in the same space of time.

Lewin, William. "The Use of Films and Other Visual Aids
in the Teaching of Composition." Educational Screen. 10:
276-7. November 1931.

A well-organized lesson plan built around a fifteen-minute
motion picture reel should begin with a private preview of the
film for the purpose of making an outline. Before it is shown
to the class, it is well for the teacher to have an outline on the
board. While the film is being shown, the sub-titles should be
read aloud by selected pupils or by the class in unison. Signifi-
cant points should be emphasized by the teacher while observa-
tion is going on.

After the showing of the film, the outline on the board
may be examined again briefly and erased. The class should
then reconstruct the outline from memory and discuss each
point rapidly. If the picture has been worth while, it will pro-
voke discussion, perhaps argumentation. If interest runs high,
an impromptu debate can be arranged. Affirmation and rebuttal
lead to real thinking. Topics for written themes, as suggested
by the reactions of the pupils, may now be written on the board.
The film has served to motivate the assignment.

Newton, Muriel B. (Abraham Lincoln High School, New
York City) "An Experiment with Arrowsmith." High
Points. 18, no. 9 :62-7. November 1936.

The following project was based on the novel, Arrowsmith,
by Sinclair Lewis. Several students had seen the motion picture.

1. The book was read out of class for enjoyment.

2. Discussion of the character Arrowsmith, and the quali-
ties he might have inherited. One quality, curiosity, led to
much discussion revealing that curiosity alone had no value, but
when coupled with initiative, perseverance, and determination
it would lead people to interesting pursuits.

206 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

3. Question by the teacher, "If you had Arrowsmith's
desire to find the why of each problem, in what type of research
would you be most interested?" Topics suggested were directly
and indirectly concerned with the book, for example, plagues,
hero worship, microscopy, Sinclair Lewis, printing, hobbies, and
so on.

4. How to obtain information on these topics? The libra-
rian came to the next class meeting armed with samples of
materials for research. Pupils were then asked to compile a
bibliography on index cards on their selected topic. They went
further than this and visited laboratories, interviewed specialists,
and wrote letters of inquiry.

5. In the meantime, the novel, Arrowsmith, was discussed
in class with respect to curiosity, hero worship, ambition, small
town life vs. city life, a doctor's responsibility to his people, the
scientific aspect of the story, the women in the story, the purpose
of the story. The last topic led to a detailed discussion of
books written with a purpose, or for propaganda. A class
dramatization of an episode in the book, and a debate on social-
ized medicine were two of the outcomes of the class discussions.

6. The bibliographies of each individual student were organ-
ized, essays written by each student, each theme typed, illustrated
and bound, and added to the class library.

If the motion picture is to be used for those areas of
knowledge which treat of abstractions, the field of mathe-
matics holds great possibilities for such use. However, the
extent of use of visual aids in mathematics has been limited
to lantern slides containing diagramatic illustrations or gen-
eralizations. The potentialities of animation with a moving
picture, or trick photography, have not yet received adequate
attention by producers of educational films. One reference
here included is the only one which treats of the value of a
motion picture for teaching geometry. Schlauch offers a
review of the talking picture, The Play of the Imagination
in Geometry, which Dr. David Eugene Smith made in co-
operation with the Erpi Picture Consultants, Inc. The
author points out that this medium has expressed, as no

SECONDARY SCHOOL USE 207

other can, the meaning of geometrical terms and figures.
An examination of published articles, however, reveals no
account of the way in which a classroom teacher has made
use of this film.

Schlauch, W. S. "The Play of the Imagination in Geometry :
An Educational Talking Picture by David Eugene Smith,
in collaboration with A. Bakst." Mathematics Teacher. 24:
55-6. January 1931.

The value of the motion picture for modern language
instruction appears to consist chiefly in providing a setting
for students of the country or countries where the language
is used. The motion picture can also depict the human
geography of a foreign country and promote desirable inter-
national understandings. Talking pictures offer, in addition,
an illustration of pronunciation and idioms. Teachers of
French will find the articles by Bernard and Ginsburg very
helpful. Paine describes the use he made of filmslides and
films to develop fluency of expression in Spanish.

Bernard, Edward G. (Assistant Managing Editor) "Silent
Films and Lantern Slides in Teaching French." Modern
Language Journal. 21 :109-15. November 1936.

A successful technique for using films in French classes is
to show the film first, discuss its contents thoroughly, then
repeat the film showing to clarify and solidify the ideas. The
class should be prepared for film lessons by preliminary study.
It is absolutely essential for a teacher to preview films and
slides before presenting them to the class, regardless of the type
of teacher's manual which accompanies the material. Any com-
mentary by the teacher during the showing of the film should
be terse and as pithy as possible. Avoid a running lecture for
the full duration of the motion picture.

For pupils of lower intelligence or lower school-grades, the
teacher should make provision for an advance study of difficult
words in the sub-titles. There should be short, repeated show-
ings of films.

208 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Lantern slides should be presented to suit the level of the
learners and to fit the unit of work under consideration. The
teacher should feel free to revise the order of slide sets, and
to revise the prepared lectures. A maximum of fifteen slides,
if that many, should be allotted to one class period.

Visual material should be regarded as starting points for
further activity, and students should be encouraged to follow
up lines of inquiry about France suggested by the pictures, or
to make collections of realia, or to write reports.

Ginsburg, Edward B. "Foreign Talking Pictures in Modern
Language Instruction." Modern Language Journal. 19:
433-8. March 1935.

In using a foreign language film with a secondary school
class one showing was not found sufficient to influence knowledge
of idiomatic phrases or vocabulary. Several showings did result
in improvement in pronunciation through an improved under-
standing of the rhythm of speech in the particular foreign
language.

Some foreign language films which would be valuable for
students would be films on phonetics, using close-up and slow
motion photography; or travel films which present true condi-
tions under which average people in other countries live. Avail-
able travel films tend to show the unusual conditions of a people.

Talking pictures offer a combination of the image, the spoken
word, and the printed word.

Paine, Donald A. (Lakewood High School, Ohio) "Pictures
in the Spanish Class." Visual Review. 1930 :12-14.

It has already been pointed out that teachers of science
use visual aids more systematically and more frequently than
do teachers of other subjects. In this section, some of the
teachers have reported specific techniques for using visual
aids in the various science areas.

Horn places the motion picture in its proper relationship
to the whole field of science. Shriner, in connection with his
use of films for junior high school science, has developed
an ingenious system of pupil evaluation of motion pictures.
Walters used a motion picture to introduce each of the units

SECONDARY SCHOOL USE 209

in his chemistry course. He, too, has indicated how his
selection of pictures was influenced by his pupils' judgments
regarding each film and its place in the unit. Shriner has
illustrated how he extended his science instruction to actual
life situations, thus affording some vocational guidance.

The visual aids program described by Lewis is in con-
formity with the unit method established by Morrison. After
presenting the sequence of steps, the author evaluates each
type of visual aid in terms of the values to be derived.
Osburn has presented the background for his use of visual
aids in a general science class operating under the contract
system, an arrangement similar to the one described by Lewis.
The Koenig lesson plan shows how visual aids were effec-
tively correlated with classes studying under the unit system
of instruction, using contracts as were described in the two
preceding articles.

Astell has demonstrated very clearly the role of the
motion picture in integrating the study of copper as applied
to industry. A series of films were used as background for
individual reports, and pupils were encouraged to illustrate
their reports with slides. The original article should be
consulted for information concerning texts, periodicals, and
films used.

The article by Lynch indicates the line of thought pursued
by this teacher of biology in developing the concept of energy.
First she outlines the steps, then the important generaliza-
tions expected to be derived in each step, and the motion pic-
tures which she found helpful in achieving her objectives.
The reader is referred to the original article.

Certain teachers have indicated special uses which were
made of the motion picture in science instruction. Limited
laboratory facilities were overcome by using films, as evi-
denced by the Bing and Jones articles. The former used
films to illustrate microscopy, and also, with a class of girls

210 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

living in a crowded section of New York City, to illustrate
the need for hygienic ways of living. Jones found the
motion picture helpful in a crowded classroom in a North
Carolina school where laboratory equipment was inadequate.
Wheat found the showing of motion pictures for review
to be a most popular and effective medium among high
school students studying for the State Regents' Examina-
tions. The use of films and other visual aids in a physics
class is illustrated in the article by Brown.

Horn, Aaron. 'The Function of the Picture in Science In-
struction." Educational Screen. 9 :75. March 1930.

The organization of the course in science from the elementary
grades through high school must be based on the psychological
sequence: environmental experience, experimental derivation of
physical law, and application of these laws to previous and
further environmental experience. In the first and third steps
the picture occupies a position of unique and fundamental im-
portance, serving a purpose completely distinct from that of the
experiment.

Classroom demonstrations should be supplemented by a film
showing processes in their natural situations.

Shriner, J. T. (Latimer Junior High School, Pittsburgh)
"The Use of Motion Pictures in the Teaching of Junior
High School Science." Educational Screen. 5 :325-8. June

The judgment of trained students is a strong influence upon
the pictures selected for use in science classes. Reviewing is
done by an extra-curricular club. The groups are divided into
the "onceovers," the "spotters," and the final group, consisting
of teachers. Ttie first group are asked to answer the following
questions :

Do you like this reel ?

What do you like about it?

Would you like to see it in class?

Under what subject?

What did you learn that you did not already know ?

Would you like to see it again ?

SECONDARY SCHOOL USE 211

The second group of pupils, about six in number, record the
answers to the following questions :

What percentage of the picture is sub-titles? still pictures?
Why do you think this would be a good motion picture for
class ?

What objection have you to it for class use?

What subject would it supplement?

What makes you think so ?

Is it simple enough for class use and why ?

How many days would you take to show it and why?

The accepted films are then reviewed by teachers in the
subject in which the films were assigned. Tests are worked
out on the basis of the contents of the film. These are true-
false tests, completion, multiple choice, and review.

When using a film for class instruction, it is desirable to
arouse the pupil's curiosity, hold his interest, and guide his
observations in working out life situations. Show only one
reel or part of it in a recitation period.

The use of the film on the gasoline engine served to develop
interest in a life situation. The students were desirous of
learning what traits were needed to be a successful automobile
mechanic, a vocation which they had seen represented in the
film. Interviews with automobile workers were arranged, in-
cluding an interview with a manager, a superintendent, a shop
foreman, the best mechanic, the poorest mechanic, an office
man, an employment manager, and a technical engineer. The
traits were ranked, then defined, and a composite picture
made of the traits ranked according to the frequency of mention
by the persons interviewed. Accuracy, technical knowledge,
thoroughness, cleanliness, speed, ambition, interest in work were
the. traits in order.

Such an activity leads to desirable attitudes which the
general public, the automobile mechanic, the employment man-
ager, and the student will welcome.

Walters, Orville S. (Enid, Oklahoma High School) "Indus-
trial Motion Pictures in the Classroom." Journal of Chemical
Education. 6:1736-9. October 1929.

A series of films were scheduled in advance for use in a
class in chemistry without having been previewed by the teacher.

212 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Each was used to introduce the particular subject it described.
The films used were:

a) Beyond the Microscope

b) A Trip through Filmland

c) Study of Steel

d) Oxygen, the Wonder Worker

e) Jewels of Industry

f ) Story of Dynamite

g) Story of Gasoline

At the end of the course, a questionnaire was submitted to
the students. The questions and some indication of the answers
were as follows :

1. Which picture did you like best ?

(a) 36 ; (b) 21 ; (c) 16 ; (g) 13%; (e) 7%; (d) 4% ;

(0.3%..

2. From which picture did you learn most ?

(g) 32%; (c) 21%; (b) 12%; (f) 12%; (e) 11%;
(a) 7%; (d) 5%.

3. Which pictures enabled you to understand points which
you did not otherwise understand clearly from the text and any
class discussion?

4. Which pictures, if any,. did not add to your understanding
of the subject as taken up by the text and class discussion?

5. What processes do you feel would have been more clearly
understood if pictures of them had been shown?

6. Would you rather spend an hour seeing a picture and
discussing it, or working an hour in the laboratory ?

24% preferred the laboratory, and 5% liked both
equally well.

7. If you could do only one, would you rather take a trip
through the refinery, or see the picture, Story of Gasoline?
Why?

8. What criticisms would you make of the pictures which
have been shown?

"Real chemistry of process not emphasized."
"Too many pictures of buildings and grounds."
"Too much complicated machinery shown."

9. Neglecting their entertainment value, do you believe
motion pictures have been of actual benefit to you in under-
standing chemistry? Why?

74 of 75 said films had been of benefit.
Conclusions :

1. The most interesting pictures were not the ones from
which students learned most. In fact, the least popular on this

SECONDARY SCHOOL USE 213

basis stands next highest in clearing up points otherwise not
clearly understood.

2. Apparently high instructional value is generally sacrificed
for high entertainment value in an industrial film. No title
is outstanding as both.

3. Some pictures appealed to a small minority on any basis.

4. A majority of the students profited by all the films.
Some of the pictures benefitted all, or practically all students.

5. Fuller understanding of some processes would have
resulted through the showing of one or more additional films.

6. A majority of students prefer motion pictures to the
laboratory, but only because of less effort involved.

7. Some pictures are preferable to an excursion.

8. Because they are designed for the widest possible use,
industrial motion pictures cannot include involved technical
points. However, these are readily covered by subsequent class
discussion.

9. The pupils and the teacher are favorably inclined toward
using classroom films, especially in connection with "applied"
portions of the course. They should, however, be used in
moderation and chosen carefully.

Lewis, Donald K. (Science Instructor, Central High School,
Red Wing, Minnesota) "Visual Aids in Science Teaching."
Educational Screen. 14:67-71. March 1935.

The unit attack method described in this article was de-
veloped after ten years of experimentation with different visual
aid teaching set-ups. The system, following the technique
established by Dr. Henry C. Morrison, involves a critical analysis
of the course of study at hand in the light of pupil needs. The
subject matter finally selected is then carefully divided into a
series of related units, and in each one a few outstanding facts
are designated as the minimum essentials which must be mastered
by the pupils as they advance from one unit to the next.

The actual unit investigation process follows a set routine
of six steps presented as follows:

1. Pre-test. An objective type test definitely covering the
minimum essentials introduces the unit.

2. Study Outline Presentation. Definite questions and
study directions are written in outline on the board.
After a detailed explanatory talk by the instructor, the

214 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

pupils copy the outline in their notebooks which helps
to familiarize them with the requirements of the unit.

3. Study Investigation. Various teaching aids are made
accessible in the classroom, e.g. supplementary texts,
encyclopediae, filed clippings, mounted pictures, maga-
zine articles, booklets, charts, maps, graphs, blackboard
diagrams, models, specimens, samples, exhibits, experi-
mental substances, stereographs, slides, 16mm. motion
picture equipment, and field trips when possible.

4. Organization and Checking of Information. This is
usually a paper in story or outline form, wherein the
pupil rechecks and summarizes his findings as called for
in the study outline. Appropriate explanatory diagrams
are encouraged.

5. End Test. This includes a repetition of the pre-test,
and additional questions covering material outside the
minimum essentials. By comparing the pre-test with the
repetition test scores, the amount of improvement can
be determined; and by referring the repetition score to
a worked-out scale, the percentage of minimum essentials
mastered can be reached. The scores on the questions
which test for additional information will determine the
gains beyond the minimum essentials.

6. Concluding Discussion. This is a very informal dis-
cussion wherein final conclusions are considered, view-
points aired, and particular problems examined.

The writer subscribes to this method because it provides a
simple, definite plan for both teacher and pupil, and because it
is built soundly upon the essential features of the scientific
method of investigation.

Consideration is then given to the place of the school journey,
the stereograph, the still picture, and the projected picture
respectively in relation to such a program of instruction.

Osburn, Dorothy Frances (Westlake Junior High School,
Oakland, California) "The Use of Visual Aids in Teaching
General Science by the Contract Method." California
Quarterly of Secondary Education. 7:14-18. October 1931.

The course in general science included units on the solar
system, science in industry, and the contributions of science to
the modern home. One or more types of visual aids were used
in each unit, where each seemed best to fit. Before deciding

SECONDARY SCHOOL USE 215

on the type of aid to use, the teacher listed all ten types, with
suggestions for using each, as follows:

1. Exhibits, such as California minerals, bacteria gardens,
types of leaves, collections of insects, telegraph instru-
ments, and the like.

2. Models, such as models of the eye, the ear, and other
organs, and models of motors, or steam engines.

3. Excursions, to an observatory, to the United Iron Works,
to Lakeside Park, to Snow Museum, to the airport, and
so on.

4. Prints, of magazine illustrations showing foods, ma-
chinery, people, clouds, birds, fish, flowers all kept on
file.

5. Charts and diagrams, showing parts of flowers, structure,
etc.

6. Maps and globes, for showing the physical aspects of
winds, gravity, and facts of time and position.

7. Stereographs, to convey the idea of third dimension for
individual instruction.

8. Slides, commercial ones to stimulate thought and convey
information on almost any subject; and home-made ones
for diagrams and testing.

9. Still films, used as slides.

10. Motion pictures, to show processes of manufacture,
habits of animals in their natural environment, and the
like, where the concept of motion is essential. Good
as introduction or review of a unit.

Under the contract system prevailing in the school, each topic
is allotted two weeks for completion. Mimeographed outlines
are given to the students. During the first fifteen or twenty
minutes of each daily hour period, group instruction, experi-
mentation, or open forum discussions are carried on. The
remainder of the period is usually devoted to individual work.

Koenig, C. J. (Scarborough School, Scarborough-on-Hudson,
N.Y.) "Visual Aids in Teaching Science Units." Educa-
tional Screen. 13 :1 10-12. April 1934.

This secondary school uses the Morrison plan of unit teach-
ing. A lesson plan is here described for teaching "Germination
and Growth of Plants," wherein the motion picture is used for
introducing the unit and as a direct source of information, and
specimens and slides are used, together with reference materials
in developing the unit.

216 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

A mimeographed sheet of instructions is given to the student.
Following is a sample unit :

Presentation: The main purpose of the unit on Germina-
tion and Growth of Plants is to show how a baby plant, or
embryo, grows into an adult. Seeds, as we learned in a previous
unit,- are formed in fruits, as the result of the pollination of
flowers. Seeds may, for long periods of time, remain dormant,
then suddenly show signs of life. This activity is due to a
stimulus of some kind. Obviously conditions both inside and
outside the seed start the growth of the plant. We are, then,
interested in finding out just what these conditions that start and
maintain growth are. By experimentation, we shall find the
answer to this problem. Then, too, plants must obtain food
in order to grow. The fact that seeds do contain food materials
of various sorts is evident when we think that we eat such seeds
as peas and beans. We shall then make a comparison of the
manner in which foods are used by plants with the way in which
we use the same substances.

Assimilative Material: Among the problems to be solved
in this unit are the following :

A. Where are baby plants found?
1. Study of seeds

(a) Actual study of bean and corn seeds

(b) Lantern slides of various seeds (See Key-
stone slides)

B. How can we find what nutrients are present in seeds?

1. Test for starch

(a) Study of crushed bean seed stained with
iodine under the microscope

(b) Study of colored chart of starch test.

2. Test for proteins

(a) Use of paper with grease spot in projector
to show it is translucent. Use Lang-
worthy Food Charts, 6, 10, 13, 14 showing
by visual means percentage of nutrients in
various seeds.

(b) Test carried out by each student.

C. What factors are necessary for germination ?
1. Water

Demonstration showing failure of dry seeds to
grow in dry moss, and successful growth of
soaked seeds in moist moss.

SECONDARY SCHOOL USE 217

2. Air

Demonstration showing failure of seeds to grow
in a vacuum, and successful growth of seed in
container open to air.

3. Temperature

Demonstration showing failure of seeds to grow
when kept in warm oven or in refrigerator and
successful growth when kept at room temperature.

D. How does the embryo become a plant ?

1. Cotyledon; 2. Plumule; 3. Hypocotyl

(a) Observation and study of actual bean and
corn seedlings at various stages of growth in
a germinating box

(b) Study of preserved specimen showing
progressive stages of growth of seedlings

(c) Detailed study of the motion picture, Do
You Know Beans? (Edited Pictures Sys-
tem), showing animated drawings and pro-
gressive shots of bean growth

(d) Study of lantern slide showing structure of
seed parts in various seeds (Keystone
slides)

(e) Study in microscope of the various sections
of corn seed

(f) Experiments on effect on growth of remov-
ing the cotyledon.

E. What makes a young plant grow ?

1. Proof that oxidation occurs in plants

(a) Experiment, using lime-water test for
carbon

(b) Demonstration, expelling air from lungs
through lime water to show presence of
carbon dioxide in human breath.

F. Do plants digest food ?

1. Proof that starch is changed to sugar in plants
(a) Experiments and demonstrations.

Organization: You will organize the unit material by con-
structing a summary outline of the unit's work. The charts
and slides are always accessible to the students and in review
of the unit may be used to supplement or replace re-reading of
the text material.

Check-Up: At the completion of the unit a check-up will
be given to determine your mastery of the unit. (Many of the

218 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

slides and charts used in the study are made by the students
themselves during the assimilative period. This serves the
students as a combination of visual and manual expression, and
also to build up a permanent library which is of use to other
students. )

Astell, Louis A. "An Integrated Project on Copper, Utiliz-
ing Visual Aids in Various Forms." Educational Screen.
11 :21-5. January 1932.

A class in chemistry was studying the integration between the
chemistry of copper and its application to industry. The work
of the unit was divided into fourteen topics, each of which could
be developed through motion pictures and texts. The students
or the teacher were assigned to prepare reports on one of the
following :

1. Many Uses of Copper

2. Life in the Copper Mining Districts of the U.S.

3. General Relationship of Copper and Coal Mining

4. History of Copper

5. Geological Aspects of Copper

(a) Copper Mining

(b) Copper Production in the U.S.

(c) Copper Production beyond the U.S.

(d) Properties of Copper

6. Milling

(a) Milling, including acid leaching

(b) Milling, including ammonia regeneration

(c) Froth Flotation in the Copper Industry

7. Smelting of Copper

8. Refining of Copper and of Copper Wire

9. Industrial, and Other Aspects

(a) Copper Markets

(b) Copper and Electricity

(c) Copper in Mintage

(d) Copper in Building Construction

(e) Copper in Plumbing Industry

(f) Copper in Automobiles

(g) Copper in the Telephone

(h) Copper in Medicine and Health
(i ) Copper in National Defense
(j ) Copper in Literature

10. Electroplating Flowers, Insects, etc.

11. Copper in Chemistry Textbooks in High School

12. Lipowitz's Alloy

SECONDARY SCHOOL USE 219

The report was to be supplemented by scrap books, and
possibly by a field trip to a copper or brass fabrication plant.
Lantern slides were found helpful in illustrating pupil reports.

Several motion pictures were found which illustrated precise-
ly the topic under consideration. Following are some of these,
and their sources :

1. Story of Copper, 10 reels.

Produced by Rothacker Film Corporation, Chicago.
Distributed by U.S. Bureau of Mines.

2. Story of Fabrication of Copper, 2 reels.

Produced and distributed by U.S. Bureau of Mines.
Use only when a field trip is not practicable.

3. Copper Mining and Smelting, 1 reel, and Refining and
Manufacture of Copper, 2 reels.

Distributed by Y.M.C.A. Motion Picture Bureau.

4. From Mine to Consumer, 1 reel.

Produced by Anaconda Copper Co.
Distributed by American Museum of Natural History,
N.Y.C.

Lynch, Mary Elizabeth (Dorchester High School for Girls,
Boston) "Classroom Films as an Aid in Teaching the Energy
Concept." Classroom Film. November 1936. Eastman
Teaching Films, Inc. Rochester, N.Y.

Several of the Eastman Teaching Films were incorporated
into the biology course in which the concept of energy was to
be developed. With beginning students, the first step was to
develop, through observation and experience, a general under-
standing of the differences between living and lifeless matter.
The question is asked, "What enables these living things to
perform the functions common to them?" The answer is
developed from the pupils, that energy in some form is necessary.

The next problem is to study this energy, or power to do
work, permitting the observation of phenomena in the outside
world. The sources of energy are reduced to the following:
sun, wind, water, electricity, coal, wood, oil, and food. To
demonstrate these sources in the laboratory, the hand lens is
used, by which the heat of the sun can be concentrated to ignite
paper, a model windmill, a small waterwheel, an electric motor,
and a steam boiler. Through discussion, the sources of energy
are condensed to sun, wind, water, and vegetation. The instruc-
tor suggests that all of these may derive their energy from a

220 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

common source, but because of limitation of background and
experience, further discussion is usually fruitless.

The film, Energy from Sunlight, is now used. The pupils
are interested to see on the screen the experiment which they
have performed with the hand lens, and its larger application
to the solar engine is easily grasped. The relation of the sun's
energy to that of falling water and wind is well understood
after seeing the film. Next, pupils are assigned to demonstrate,
by laboratory experiment, the facts which they have learned.
The rest of the film is shown without much comment, because
the work of the next several weeks will elaborate the knowledge
of the relation of sunlight to food energy.

Another problem which arises is, "How is this solar energy
converted to the use of living things?" A discussion period
reveals vegetation as the basic food source. Further study
shows that all of this vegetation possesses a green substance
called chlorophyll. By a series of experiments and laboratory
demonstrations with living plants, it is seen that in the presence
of sunlight this chlorophyll enables the plant to synthesize carbon
dioxide and water to make carbohydrates. The problem is
summarized by showing the film, The Green Plant, in its
entirety. The showing of the film is accompanied and followed
by discussion, which links up the data contained in it with the
knowledge gained from the classroom experiments.

After developing the problem, "What forms may food
derived from vegetation take?", the class proceeds to the ques-
tion, "How does the body convert food to its use?" By dissec-
tion, the class studies the structure of the digestive systems of
various animals. Details of structure are seen with the aid of
the microscope and microprojector. Experiments are made to
show the action of saliva, gastric juice, and pancreatic juice.
The film, Digestion, is of the greatest value in solving this
problem. It is more efficient than any other method for teach-
ing the mechanics of swallowing, the muscular action of the
stomach, and peristalsis. It broadens the view already gained
of the structure of the alimentary canal, and prepares the class
for the coming problem, "How is digested food made available
to all parts of the body?"

To introduce this new problem, the end of the film on diges-
tion is repeated. This leads naturally to the study of the struc-
ture of the circulatory system. The flow of blood in the

SECONDARY SCHOOL USE 221

capillaries of the frog's web is seen under the microscope. The
pulsing of the chick-embryo heart is seen, first in the living
embryo, and then by means of the film, Circulation. This
film shows details essential to an understanding of the functions
of the heart, arteries, capillaries, and veins. Further study by
dissection of the sheep's heart, and microscopic study of arteries
and veins prepares for the showing of the part of the film devoted
to the human heart. The sequence of heart movements is very
well shown, and the differences between pulmonary and sys-
temic circulation are made clear. The diagrams which show
the interchange of gases, foods, and wastes between the blood
and tissues are more valuable than any amount of talking about
it can be.

After a period devoted to the summarization of the problem,
the class is led to see that although the food has been digested
and distributed to the cells of the body, the stored energy of the
sun is not yet available to the body. The problem now is, "How
is the energy stored in food released for the use of the body?"
Laboratory demonstrations are made of the release of heat from
wood, coal, oil, bread, corn, and powdered milk by burning.
The class raises the question as to how a similar process may
take place in the body, and decides that the oxygen taken during
respiration must unite with the food to release the energy used
by the body. To understand how the process takes place, the
class dissected a sheep's trachea and lungs. Sections of tissues
were studied from the microscope. To sum up this knowledge
of anatomy, the first section of the film, Breathing, was shown.
The rest of the film was shown later to illustrate the physiology
of respiration. The section which shows the movement of the
ribs and diaphragm at inhalation and exhalation is especially
valuable.

The discussion next turns to the manner in which the body
makes use of released energy. This leaves the problem, "How
is the body energy released in the form of motion?" The types
of motion are next studied, and all are seen to depend upon
muscle. Then they use the microscope to study the structure.
These facts are clinched through the first part of the film,
Muscles. The properties of muscles are also learned by the
film, later corroborated through experiments.

Finally, several days are devoted to integrating all of the
information on energy, its storage and use. The film, Energy

222 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

from Sunlight, is shown again. This time its significance is
much greater, because of the deeper knowledge brought to it by
the students. They are ready now to go on to a general study
of the life structures and functions of both plants and animals.

Bing, Mary E. (Corlears Junior High School, New York
City) "What Size of Film Is Most Effective in Classroom
Teaching?" Nation's Schools. 5:58-60. January 1930.

Biology is an unfamiliar subject to the parents of these
students of New York's east side, and bewildering to the chil-
dren. The use of motion pictures has greatly aided in lending
an aspect of reality to the discussion of animals and natural
phenomena of the out of doors which these children had never
seen.

The use of microscopes for each of a class of thirty girls
leaves little time for the application of the knowledge thus ac-
quired. A picture, expertly conceived, designed and executed,
served to bring to all the important facts which may be found
under a microscope. The study of bacteria offers a good oppor-
tunity to discuss hygienic ways of living, such as the foods they
eat, the water they drink, and the proper ventilation of their
rooms.

Jones, H. D. (Knightdale, North Carolina) "Learning by
Seeing, or Science by Sight." North Carolina Teacher. 1-
12. September 1934.

A series of films used in connection with the study of bees,
protozoa, transportation by water, and the study of light in the
natural and physical sciences did much to solve the problem of
overcrowded classrooms and insufficient laboratory equipment.
Yet it is observed that the effectiveness of the motion picture
applies equally to those situations where texts and laboratories
are ample.

Wheat, Frank M. (Chairman of Biology, George Washing-
ton High School, New York City) "Voluntary Motion Pic-
ture Review Classes." The Classroom Film. March 1937.
Eastman Teaching Films, Inc. Rochester, N.Y.

In New York City and State, at the end of the second year
of biology, there is a required State Regents' Examination. All
teachers are anxious to have pupils make good records on these

SECONDARY SCHOOL USE 223

tests, and different methods have been devised for those who
need extra coaching.

A program of motion picture films has been arranged at the
George Washington High School, in which films are shown for
thirty minutes after school three times weekly a few weeks
preceding the examination date. Most of the students have
seen the films at a former time, but in spite of this there was
an average volunteer attendance each day of between 100 and
150. One teacher kept careful track of those in her class who
took this voluntary review. Twenty of her pupils attended all
six afternoons. All of these passed the regents' test.

One of the recent examinations revealed that of fifty short
answer questions, seventeen could be answered by information
obtained from the films shown in the review.

It was significant that so many voluntarily gave thirty minutes
of their afternoon to see these films, when no credit of any
kind was given for attendance.

The schedule of films includes the following :

Microscopic Animal Life Circulatory Control

The Green Plant Bacteria

Digestion Mold and Yeast

Breathing How Life Begins, reel 2

The Blood How Life Begins, reel 3

Circulation How Life Begins, reel 4

Raskin, Abraham (Inwood Junior High School, New York
City) "Another Type of Motion Picture Lesson." The
Classroom Film. March 1937.

Following is the technique found to be most practicable in a
New York City school, using a one-reel motion picture with
adequate provision for discussion.

1. A pupil is assigned to place on the blackboard a few
thought-provoking questions. The pupils copy these into
their notebooks while the teacher prepares the film for
projection.

2. The film is shown, supplemented with as little talk as
possible during the showing. The pupils jot down any
points which they think need to be included in their
answers to the assigned questions.

3. After projection, while the instructor is busy replacing
the projector, the pupils review the answers to the ques-
tions.

224 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

4. Discussion on the questions follows in the ten or fifteen
minutes which remain. Thus two or three well-selected
questions will receive better consideration in a forty-
minute period than would a series of 25 short answer
questions.

Brown, H. E. (formerly of Ridgewood, N.J., now at Lincoln
School, Teachers College, Columbia University, N.Y.)
"Visual Materials in the Teaching of Physics." Educational
Screen. 7 :96-7. May 1928.

This article is based on the statement that if, as one educator
asserted, "Every good educational film leaves an intense, inner
desire on the part of the student to find out more about the
subject," and if physics is going to grow in popularity on its
own merits, motion pictures, slides, and film strips should by all
means be used.

In presenting motion pictures before a class, occasional
comment by the teacher is desirable. It was found that students
observed important items better when they were pointed out by
the teacher, than when they were left to pass without comment.
It may be effective to stop the motion picture at times to point out
pertinent details.

The subject of physics is particularly well shown in motion
pictures which depict the applications of physics to every day
life. There is no better medium for doing this.

The teaching of vocational subjects in secondary schools
requires that instruction be as concrete as possible. Visual
aids, then, would be a natural addition to the other items
available to teachers and students. One technique for using
motion pictures in a trade school has been described in an
article by Taylor. The French educator, Fontegne, makes
a good point of the sensitization which a student needs to
decide upon his occupational ambitions. Motion pictures
for vocational guidance, he contends, should contain more
than a straightforward presentation of the conditions operat-
ing in each line of work. They should contain some
aesthetic quality which would instill a love for that type of
work, and even for work itself.

SECONDARY SCHOOL USE 225

Taylor, Allyn C. (Vocational School, St. Paul, Minn.) "Mo-
tion Pictures as a Teaching Aid in a Trade School." Indus-
trial Arts Magazine. 18 :57-8. February 1929.

Students should have a definite purpose in seeing a picture,
if they are to derive value from it. In order to bring about a
maximum of effectiveness, the teacher must have previewed it
and planned the quiz or list of questions which he will expect
the students to answer following the showing.

In connection with the film, Story of Heat Treatment of
Steel a list of thirty questions were given the students in advance.
After the film showing, there followed a class discussion and
an assignment to each student for a written report. Most of
the films used were of the commercial, industrial type.

Fontegne, Julien. "The Use of the Cinema in Occupational
Instruction." International Review of Educational Cinema-
tography. 5 :177-8. March 1933.

Films for occupational instruction should convey a feeling
of "love for one's work," as depicted by the persons in the
film. Benoit-Levy's film, "Doigts d'Ouvrieres" is given as an
illustration of such a film. The theme of it is: "Workgirl's
hands, fairy's hands . . . hands, instruments of the intelligence,
creators of loveliness .... it is a dream come true . . . the poetry
of work."

If labor has its poetry, it has also its joy. When we show
on the screen a worker coming back to his home which is full of
peace and comfort, are we not indirectly engaging in occupa-
tional instruction?

One type of film is the specialized instructional one. What
it requires is not so much the details, as the way of making a
suggestion to the child who has to place himself in life. What
is wanted is that when a child has seen one of these films, he
should cry out spontaneously, "That is the work I should like.
That is the job for me, before all others."

The film should be shown in school and not accompanied
with very much comment. We could almost go so far as to
say that complete absence of comment is the best plan. The
child has heard of different crafts and trades in his class; he
has handled and worked with various materials which form
the object of one of his possible future tasks. Nothing remains

226 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

but for him to make his choice. Let him alone in his amazement.
Do not interrupt his admirations.

All occupational instruction should begin with the projection
of a film of a general character, showing suitable occupations
for boys and girls. After several trades have been shown to
the child, and he has more or less limited his choice to one or
two, then one may show him films dealing with the work in which
he has displayed interest. Occupational films should be shown
to the child's parents, too.

IV. MOTION PICTURES FOR ADULT EDUCATION

The two articles which have been summarized in this
section will indicate two very diverse areas of instruction
in which the motion picture was found to be a valuable
tool. It is probable that films are used in adult education
to a much greater extent than this bibliography reveals, but
that instructors have failed to report such use in published
form.

Munyan describes the value of films for workers' educa-
tion. The Tilton and Childs investigation was an effort
to measure scientifically the value of the Yale Chronicles of
America Photoplays to groups of adults in South Carolina.
The growth in opportunities for adult elementary education
now being provided by W.P.A. and C.C.C. classes should
result in a much more extended use of films as a teaching aid.

Munyan, E. A. (Union Gas and Electric Company, Cincin-
nati) "Quicker Education by Means of Motion Picture Lec-
tures." Visual Review. 1930:23-4.

Among the films shown to workers each week are Digging
Machinery and Its Uses, one on Air Compressing Machinery,
one on the Story of Anaconda, one on Caterpillar Tractors,
the Manufacture of Cast Iron Pipe, and the Acetylene Welding
of Steel Pipe Lines.

Intervals between reels are used for brief talks by the man-
ager on the subject of better methods of doing work. These

ADULT EDUCATION 227

meetings serve to educate employees at an exceptionally low
per capita cost, and they also serve to improve employee rela-
tions and increase employee efficiency.

The employees find the films helpful because they learn
how equipment can be used on other jobs, and how it is used
in other industries.

Tilton, J. W. (Associate Professor of Educational Psychol-
ogy, Yale University) and Childs, Arney R. (Principal,
Logan School, Columbia, S.C.) "The Use of the Yale Photo-
plays in an Elementary School for Adults." Educational
Method. 13 :71-5. November 1933.

An experiment was conducted in 1931 in Clemson College
with a class of adults who had not gone beyond the seventh
grade. One group, the experimental group, consisted of stu-
dents who were illiterate and equivalent in educational experi-
ence to Grades I to III. Another group, the intermediate group,
consisted of students whose education was equivalent to Grades
IV and V. The advanced group consisted of students whose test
scores approximately equalled those of children in Grades VI
and VII.

The experimental group ranged in age from 15 to 70, averag-
ing 25. The ratio of men to women was about 2 to 1. In native
ability they were probably below average. The ages of the
intermediate group ranged from 14 to 45, the average being 20.
The ratio of men to women was about 1.6 to 1. In native
ability they were about average. In the advanced group the ages
ranged from 15 to 34, the average being 20. The ratio of men
to women was about 1.3 to 1. In ability the advanced group
was average or better. In all three groups the occupation was
most frequently mill work, many being released for the purpose
of attending the Opportunity School and often financed in whole
or part by their employers. During the four-week period of
summer school, the students lived at the college.

The Yale Chronicles were shown five evenings weekly,
from 9 to 10 p. M. in the auditorium. Little attempt was made
to correlate the material in the films with regular history instruc-
tion, since the course of study dealt with History of South
Carolina.

The procedure used during the showing was to have Mrs.
Childs read the captions from the film for the benefit of those

228 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

who could not read. A few remarks were added by her. Three
tests, made and administered by Mrs. Childs, were used
to measure the results of the film showings. Each test consisted
of 75 questions so worded that they might be answered by under-
lining, "Yes," "No," or "I don't know." The papers were scored
by subtracting the number wrong from the number right. The
tests were administered at the beginning and end of each week.
The scores of the experimental group on the initial test at the
beginning of the second week showed that they had very little
knowledge of American History. .

There appeared to be a greater difference between the ex-
perimental and intermediate groups than between the intermediate
and advanced groups. A battery of tests to determine the
public school placement of the students revealed the average
initial scores at the beginning of the second week to be :

GRADE AVERAGE INITIAL SCORE

1 4

2 4

3 4

4 14

5 21

6 23

7 25

8 26

From these figures it may be concluded that the second or
third year of schooling added no perceptible ability to answer the
test questions. The equivalent of the fourth year of schooling
made the greatest contribution, the increase diminishing from
that point on. In so far as the test measured the knowledge of
history taught in the elementary schools previously attended
by these adults, it drew most heavily upon that content taught
in Grades IV and V.

The 75 items on the test used before and after the showing
of Gateway to the West, Wolfe and Montcalm, Eve of the
Revolution, Declaration of Independence, and Yorktown were
analyzed to find out: (a) to what extent one had to see the
pictures in order to learn the answers, or, to what extent the
gains consisted of the core knowledge usually learned in the
course of schooling; and (b) to what extent the gains of the
three groups were made along similar lines.

From the initial testing data, the percentage for each item
of the experimental group answering the question correctly was

ADULT EDUCATION 229

computed. A similar percentage was then computed for the
intermediate and advanced groups combined. The first percent-
age was then subtracted from the second as a measure, for each
question, of the extent to which more schooling and intelligence
provided the answer without an opportunity of viewing the
pictures. Then for each item or question there was computed the
percentage of the illiterate group which learned to answer it
correctly during the week, and the same thing was done for the
other groups. This gave for each item of information a measure,
within each group, of the extent to which that item was taught
during the week.

Results: The gains made as a result of the use of the pic-
tures were not peculiar to the pictures, but were of the sort which
normally come with more schooling. And this was most evident
in the case of the least schooled and least evident in the case of
the most advanced group.

Interpretation of findings : Cautions :

1. The elementary schools referred to are the schools
which had been attended by such members of the adult
group as had gone to school.

2. The illiterate adults learned all the history which is
learned in those grades. The tests used were built closely
around the history portrayed in the pictures.

3. To say that the illiterate adults' gain is made by children
in the third and fourth grades is not to say that children
in those grades learn all that the adults learned. The
comparison holds only for what the test measured and
for the kind of history instruction which the adults had
previously received.

4. The experimental teaching situation had many limita-
tions in that the films were shown at a late hour and
students were tired from the day's schooling. Further-
more, experimental work with the Photoplays has shown
that they are not a substitute for teaching. The results
of this experiment are from a somewhat incidental use
of the Photoplays, not a carefully prepared or recom-
mended program.

Conclusions :

1. The initial scores and the gains made by the three
groups were roughly in direct proportion to the amount
of their schooling and of their ability. The gain made
by the illiterate group consisted very largely in getting
information which had already been acquired by the

230 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

better educated groups while attending school up to the
middle of the fifth grade.

2. The Photoplays may be viewed with profit by any adult
group on the elementary school level, supplying a basic
core knowledge of American history to those who lack
it, supplementing and enriching, in proportion to the
amount of such basic knowledge already possessed.

V. MOTION PICTURES IN HIGHER EDUCATION

The distinctive role of the motion picture and other visual
aids in higher education is clearly stated by Freeman. One
of his concluding statements is to the effect that a survey
of the needs of college courses would indicate the desirability
of extending the use of visual aids in institutions of higher
learning. Haworth has made just such a survey at the
Pasadena Junior College and the summary of his findings
will indicate the status of the motion picture in relation to
other visual aids used in the various departments of that
school. Another article which treats of the value which the
motion picture can render to a university curriculum is that
of Hutchins in which he describes the extensive plan of the
University of Chicago with respect to sound films. Allen's
article describes the application of this plan to a survey
course in physical science at Colgate University.

The abstracts which follow are concerned with the use
of films in specific areas of instruction on the college or post-
graduate level; Glover in business courses, Ulp in teaching
of drawing, Price in the teaching of general zoology, Stover
in the teaching of pedagogy, and Freeman in the teaching of
psychology.

Freeman, Frank N. "Some Principles on the Use of Visual
Methods in Higher Education." Educational Screen. 8 :
100-1, 135-6. April, May 1929.

It should be remembered that visual education is limited in
purpose to a presentation of concrete information, that the term

HIGHER EDUCATION 231

"concrete" is relative, and that the objectives of visual education
differ in higher education from those in the elementary and
secondary schools. In colleges the needs of the student are
varied, each instructor employs a diversified technique, and the
organization or administration of visual aids must be flexible.

An instructor in an institution of higher learning would
have to plan somewhat as follows for the use of visual aids:
What are the essential concrete experiences required for the
understanding of the subject and each topic or phase of the
subject? Which of these necessary forms of preliminary ex-
perience is the student likely to have had? (The solution of this
problem is, of course, complicated by the diversity of experi-
ences which students have had. Not only their every-day ex-
perience, but their education has differed enormously. Some
have traveled widely, some not at all. In this case, try to strike
a medium and, if necessary, provide too much rather than too
little foundational experience.) What would be the best method
of supplying the necessary experience? Which visual aid would
help to achieve the objectives, as determined by the criteria of
suitability, economy, ease of handling? Has the material been
prepared and organized for college use ?

An experimental study of the problems of various college
courses would undoubtedly indicate the gaps which need to be
filled, and would demonstrate the desirability of a considerable
extension of visual education in higher institutions of learning.

Haworth, Harry A. (Pasadena Junior College) "A Survey
of the Use of Visual Aids in Pasadena Junior College."
Educational Screen. 11:105. April 1932.

A survey was conducted by the Visual Education Committee
of the Pasadena Junior College to determine the extent of use
made of visual aids, the needs of the teachers, those which can
be met and those which cannot be met.

The survey was launched mainly because the criticism had
been made that motion pictures were emphasized to the exclu-
sion of other types of visual aids. The results show that if the
criticism was once true, it no longer applies.

Each teacher was given a list of the various types of visual
aids to instruction with space at the bottom for additions to the
list, and was asked to indicate after each type the number of

232 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

times it was used per month, using the last month as a basis
for estimate.

The absolute mathematical results of the study are question-
able, but not the relative tendencies shown. As a result, the
motion picture is a low ninth in a list of eleven aids used. The
figures were rearranged on the basis of departments.

Tables show that maps were most used in the school, pic-
tures and wall charts next, demonstrations, lantern slides, models,
still films, field trips, motion pictures, microscopic projection,
and opaque projection all in order of usage. The departments
using these aids were in order, House and Fine Arts, Biological
Sciences, Commerce, Physical Science, English, Social Science,
Language, and the following to a very small extent: Mathe-
matics and Engineering, Music, Industrial Arts, with Physical
Education not using any.

Of the 102 teachers answering the questionnaire, 51 per cent
reported not using any visual aids.

Teachers' needs were incorporated into the report of the
Committee and action on them planned.

Hutchins, Robert Maynard (President, Chicago University)
"The New Tool." American Scholar. March 1933. p. 241-3.

The new educational plan for the University of Chicago
proposes to offer general orientation courses for freshmen and
sophomores, which will be used as the basis for intelligent
specialization in the last two years of college. In order to achieve
this purpose on a large scale with a minimum expenditure for
laboratory equipment, a project for producing some 80 educa-
tional talking pictures in collaboration with Erpi Picture Con-
sultants, Inc. was worked out. 11 This method is supposed to be
best suited for laboratory instruction to large classes, in the
physical, natural, and social sciences.

These films do not attempt to jazz up education, but to
discover the best subjects to be treated in films. They do not
replace the teacher. Without an instructor, the films are merely
an interesting series of scientific experiments. With a competent
teacher they become a potent educational instrument.

11 For list of films already available, apply to University of Chicago Press, or
Erpi Picture Consultants, Inc. N.Y.C.

HIGHER EDUCATION 233

Allen, John S. (Colgate University, Hamilton, N.Y.) "Films
in the College Classroom." Educational Screen. 14:161.
June 1935.

The Physical Science Survey course is designed to orient
freshmen in the fields of astronomy, chemistry, geology, and
physics. Through an introduction to these sciences, it aims to
give a definite conception of the physical world, some apprecia-
tion of the scientific method and the part it has had in the
intellectual life of the race, and the contribution of the physical
sciences to the solution of some contemporary problems. It is a
logically developed course in the physical sciences, rather than
a ' 'cut-down" version of the elementary courses in the depart-
ments represented.

One period a week the class meets as a whole in the audi-
torium, where sound films and illustrated lectures are found to
be very valuable. The other periods during the week are given
over to small group discussions, field trips, and individual re-
search. The University of Chicago series of talking films,
among others, are used.

Glover, J. G. (Dept. of Management, New York University)
"Use of Motion Pictures in Business Courses." Educational
Screen. 9:104-5. April 1930.

The course in Manufacturing Industry, of the Department of
Management, School of Commerce, New York University, is an
orientation course for the freshman who intends to make busi-
ness his life's work. The purpose of the course is to acquaint
the student with the important manufactories of the United
States and to bring out the characteristics of the various indus-
tries. It gives a desirable cultural background, pictures the
sociological surroundings of the worker, and broadens the
student's viewpoint.

The class meets for two one-hour periods a week. Three
reels are shown in forty minutes. In the remaining time there
is either discussion, or a speaker from the industrial plant shown
in the film, who may describe problems of management.

The textbook of the course is Century of Industrial Progress
by Dr. F. W. Wile. A chapter is assigned each week, and the
films are chosen to supplement the text. This combination
affords the students an unexcelled opportunity to appreciate the

234 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

development of each industry, and the present day methods of
mass production. Such a course should help the students in
deciding the field of business which interests them most.

Ulp, Clifford McCormick. "Models in Motion: A Study of
Materials and Procedure Best Adapted to Teach Dynamic
Drawing." Journal of Higher Education. 4:19-22. January
1933.

A specially constructed film, Models in Motion was used
as the basis for an investigation in the School of Applied Art
of the Rochester Athenaeum and Mechanics Institute. Three
types of students used the film :

(A) The entering freshman class who had never drawn
from life.

(B) Beginning junior class who had limited experience in
sketching from life.

(C) And the beginning senior class who had considerable
experience in drawing from life, illustration, and
sketch classes.

One section of the freshman class met for one hour twice
a week, all the other classes met for one hour once a week.
No control classes were used. The study was supervised and
observed by the director of the school and carried on by five
different instructors who were encouraged to introduce variations
of the method without detracting from the main intent.

Conclusions, representing the judgment of the five instruc-
tors, of the director, and of eleven other instructors who had
opportunity to observe the characteristics of students, work in
related subjects, are

(A) A short, interrupted observation repeated in rapid
sequence (which is the basic feature of models in
motion) is stimulating to mental analysis and organiza-
tion.

(B) The activity of the class is paced by the action of the
motion picture.

(C) Attention is carried more naturally to the dynamic

lines of the figure.

(D) Freshmen, who had had no previous training in draw-
ing, grasped the purpose of motion picture drawing
more quickly than senior students trained with posted
models previous to the senior year.

HIGHER EDUCATION 235

(E) Drawing from memory (after seeing the film) or
drawing directly from the motion picture were demon-
strated to produce undoubted values in emphasizing
the following fundamentals of drawing: keen observa-
tion is stimulated, the student tends to select a vital
phase of the action, an appreciation of major relations
is developed, importance of emphasis on details and
of elimination of unnecessary detail grows upon the
student, and the ability to make a dynamic drawing
is increased.

(F) Sketching from models in motion helps greatly to
interest students in memory drawing.

(G) In design classes, greater appreciation of rhythm and
movement may be traced to work from models in
motion.

(H) In figure-drawing classes, motion picture study helped
to develop an understanding of the unity of the figure
and its action.

(I) In painting classes, appreciation of major relations
and a more rapid and more direct attack seemed to
have been achieved.

Models in motion might well be an interesting and stimulating
means of acquiring the "language of drawing" for elementary
school pupils.

Price, John W. (Associate Professor of Zoology, Ohio State
University, Columbus, Ohio) "The Use of Films in General
Zoology Teaching." Educational Screen. 13 :263-4. Decem-
ber 1934.

There are at least five definite situations in which films are
used to advantage in presenting the material of General Zoology
as it is now being taught :

1. Films used to present demonstrations of experiments
before large classes. An experiment conducted with groups of
as many as a hundred as compared with groups of 35 showed
the great value of the enlarged image.

2. Films used to supplement other visual methods. Films
used to supplement laboratory demonstrations and student
experimentation will ensure comprehension, especially since the
film shows exactly what the student is expected to see;
standardization of material presented.

3. Films used to illustrate physiological processes of the
human body. Manikins are lacking in life, and animals used

236 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

to demonstrate human physiological processes are indirect. Films
using the human subject and animated drawings are most
effective.

4. Films used to demonstrate life history.

5. Films showing animals in their natural habitats. This
is second only to the actual experience.

Although the efficacy of the film was not measured in an
experimental way, the film- taught groups of larger numbers
made a somewhat higher score in an informational test than did
the groups of smaller numbers.

Stover, Edgar M. (Research Associate, Erpi Picture Con-
sultants, Inc.) "Talking Picture as an Aid in Adult Learn-
ing." National Board of Review Magazine. 9:11-13.
November 1934.

This experiment was conducted during a summer session at
Teachers College by Dr. Laura Krieger Eads and Mr. Stover.
Four classes in educational psychology were used. The purpose
of the experiment was to determine whether or not the talking
picture as a teaching medium is superior to other means usually
employed in the classroom assigned readings, lectures and
class discussions. A control group was used which did not see
the picture, but followed the procedures of the experimental
group in all other respects. Precautions were taken to see that
these groups were equivalent with respect to mental ability
(as measured by the Otis test) and previous knowledge of
psychology.

A test on the Buswell procedures in diagnostic measurement
in arithmetic was administered. This was based on the Buswell
and Johns monograph, Diagnostic Studies in Arithmetic.

Talking Picture vs. Assigned Readings: Two groups of
students had read the monograph as a required assignment, but
they did not discuss it in class. One group saw the talking pic-
ture after reading the monograph. The mean score of that
group was 11 points higher than that of the control group.

Talking Picture vs. Reading and Class Discussion : The ex-
perimental group which had seen the talking picture made a score
which was, on the average, almost nine points higher than those
made by the students who did not see it.

Talking Picture vs. Lecture : A class was divided into two
groups, one of which saw the twenty-minute film while the

LARGE GROUP INSTRUCTION 237

other listened to a lecture on the materials described in 'the pic-
ture which had been based on the scientific techniques discussed
in the monograph. A stenographic report of the lecture showed
that the instructor had covered all the techniques and had pre-
sented them clearly and forcefully. The group which saw the
picture surpassed the control group by four points.

A questionnaire showed the students to be enthusiastic about
the value of the film.

Freeman, G. L. (Professor at Northwestern University)
"Visual Aids in Adult Education." Educational Screen. 16:
9-10. January 1937.

Reviewed in Part Four, p. 287.

VI. LARGE GROUP INSTRUCTION WITH FILMS

Although motion pictures for instruction have been found
most effective when used with small groups under normal
classroom conditions, some mention should be made of ways
in which films have been used effectively before large groups.
Articles describing this technique may be classified as those
in which the auditorium showing of films was directly cor-
related with the curriculum, and those in which such show-
ings were intended for recreation.

Stoddard describes a significant experiment conducted
under his direction in the Providence, R. I. schools for the
purpose of determining whether the use of sound films would
enable the teacher to instruct a class of 150 pupils as effec-
tively as a class of forty could be instructed without this aid.
Every type of teaching aid which would help to enrich the
unit of work was available to the control and experimental
groups, with the exception that the experimental group sub-
stituted the aid of sound pictures for other devices for about
thirty minutes each week. His report, however, gives little
specific with respect to techniques, and is therefore only

238 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

mentioned here. For a full digest, see the treatment of the
study on p. 311 under Research.

Stoddard, A. J. (Superintendent of Schools, Providence, R.L)
"Will Sound Pictures Tend to Increase Class Size?" Na-
tion's Schools. 14:16-19. July 1934.

The Worrell procedure for presenting a large group film
lesson is here summarized in detail because it is the result of
careful deliberation with respect to the most effective tech-
nique for using motion pictures under the contract system
being used in the Englewood school. The article by Baker
defends further the position that motion pictures can be
used effectively with large groups, especially with the contract
method of instruction.

Herron undertook the use of films in the assembly with
children of poor language ability as one form of enrichment.
The steps in the preparation and follow-up of each film
showing are listed.

Other articles which discuss the auditorium showing of
films have been reviewed elsewhere in this compilation, and
are here listed for purposes of clarity.

Jones, A. H. (Director of Visual Education, Gary, Ind.)
"Visual Education in the Auditorium." Visual Review.
1930:17-18.

Stuart, Byron D. (Principal, Westfield, N.J.) "On the Use
of Motion Pictures : Seven Years Experience Summarized."
New Jersey Educational Review. 8 :23. March 1935.

Meola, L. K. (Chairman, Visual Education, John Hay High
School, Cleveland, Ohio) "Noon Movies the New Edu-
cational Tool." Educational Screen. 14:224-7. October
1935.

Swarthout, Walter E. (Emerson School, Maywood, Illinois)
"Recreational Motion Pictures in the School." Educational
Screen. 14:97-8. April 1935.

LARGE GROUP INSTRUCTION 239

Collier, Robert, Jr. (South High School, Denver) "Prepara-
tion and Presentation of a Science Night Program." Educa-
tional Screen. 14 :219-22. October 1935.

Worrell, F. Marshall (Director of Visual Education, Junior
High School, Englewood, NJ.) "Large-Group-Instruction
through the Use of Visual Aids." Educational Screen. 15 :
43-5. February 1936.

The following procedure with films and other aids was made
possible because of the presence of sufficient equipment and
operators, and because of the "contract" system of teaching in
operation in the school.

It is based on the idea that films, slides and most demonstra-
tions may be presented as effectiyely to large groups as to small
classes. The principal scheduled all ninth grade science classes
to meet in the auditorium during the three periods on Tuesday
and Thursday for illustrated lectures, and each class was
scheduled to meet individually for discussion and supervised
study during the regular periods on Monday, Wednesday, and
Friday. This arrangement left the science teachers with free
periods for preparing the auditorium lessons, for securing and
returning materials, etc.

Materials were requisitioned about three months in advance
from catalogues and from records of films previously found
suitable.

These are some of the steps followed by the teacher in charge
of preparations for the large-group-instruction period :

1. A preview was held of the visual material the preceding
afternoon and important facts noted.

2. If demonstrations or home-made slides were needed to
supplement, they were prepared.

3. A plan of presentation was worked out in detail and the
time required for each part accurately noted to insure the full
utilization of the period.

4. A lighting schedule was made out for the boys in charge
of lights, and one for the boy operating the projector.

5. When the blackboard or some stage setting was required,
the work was done in the morning before the classes met.

6. Even auxiliary material was provided to be used in case
of a breakdown during film projection.

Pupils were given assigned seats, monitors checked attend-
ance, stage assistants were selected from among the mechanically

240 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

minded pupils, thus disposing of all routine matters in a minimum
of time.

Film as introduction to a new unit : Topic Transportation.

Three of the best students were assigned to prepare special
reports on: Origin and Development of the Steam Engine;
History of the Automobile; and History of Air Transportation
for the large-group-instruction period. The sound film, De-
velopment of Transportation, was chosen as a fitting introduction
to the unit.

The class period proceeded as follows: (a) a brief intro-
ductory talk by the teacher, emphasizing the importance of trans-
portation in modern life; (b) showing of the film; (c) reports
read by the three pupils over, the sound system; (d) students
were asked to write on the subject, Development of Transporta-
tion, based on the film and reports; (e) reshowing of the film.

During the following class period the better essays were read
and discussed. The supervised study then centered about the
topic, "Early Methods of Transportation."
Film as a direct teaching tool : Topic Dynamo

The auditorium period proceeded as follows: (a) general
review of static and galvanic electricity, their advantages and
disadvantages, by the teacher; (b) a slide was projected with
questions relating to dynamo, a new method of current genera-
tion; (c) a diagram drawn on the blackboard near which was
placed a model of a dynamo. The teacher using the model and
blackboard illustration explained the various questions on the
slide, the teacher performing the experiments, and the pupils
forming their conclusions; (d) the class was then shown the
film, Current Electricity, with teacher comment. Students took
notes to help them in further study.

A program of large-group-instruction has been enthusiastical-
ly received by pupils, teachers and administrators.

A similar program was subsequently worked out for teach-
ing of geography and proved equally effective. Plans are being
made for teaching of history and music appreciation in this
manner. Only the lack of suitable classroom films limits possi-
bilities of a more widespread use of large-group-instruction with
visual material.

LARGE GROUP INSTRUCTION 241

Baker, Arthur O. (Head of Science Dept., John Marshall
High School, Cleveland, Ohio) "The Jones Rotary System
of Instruction." Educational Screen. 15 : 107-10. April
1936.

The procedures which large group instruction with films
hopes to be able to improve are :

1. The teacher's tendency to adhere strictly to the question,
answer, discussion method.

2. Not using visual materials at all, or insufficiently.

3. Not correlating the use of films definitely with assign-
ments (For example, the class may be studying "Dairying with
Milk Products" and the film shown to them may be on "Tuber-
culosis." Such indirect correlations are not very valuable.)

4. The showing of pictures for mere entertainment.

5. Failure to prepare assignments and tests based definitely
on visual materials when used.

6. Emphasizing technical processes and the development of
scientific skills in the laboratory. With the motion picture as
an ally, work in the laboratory should become less technical and
more exploratory.

The Jones Rotary System of Instruction is an experimental
procedure being used in science and history in several schools in
Cleveland with a view to developing the techniques involved in
the visual route to education. New classroom instruction goals
are:

1. Visual demonstrations delivered to large groups with a
maximum of efficiency on the part of the instructor.

2. The use in large groups of lantern slides, silent and sound
films, exhibit and demonstration material, and the microphone.
Thus all pupils see and hear effectively.

3. The preparation of clarified assignments, and modern
tests.

4. The preparation of such correlated work-sheet exercises,
based upon the visual aids used, that lantern slides and films
become agents of instruction demanding the attention of the
student. Too frequently in the past visual aids have been used in
classes in such a manner as to result in pure entertainment.

5. Discussions in groups of such small size that all mem-
bers participate.

6. The development of leaders and leadership by placing
students in charge of small groups for certain activities.

7. The establishment of teacher-pupil contact.

8. The inclusion of a reasonable amount of guided study.

242 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

9. The securing of such individual pupil activities as the
performing of experiments and projects.

This teaching arrangement has cut the number of teaching
periods from 30 to 24 a week; it provides an opportunity for
teachers to plan their work; it avoids the monotony of routine
presentations ; and it uses visual aids with considerable effective-
ness.

The article describes administrative procedures to follow in
establishing this system of instruction.

Herron, John S. (Principal, Lafayette St. School, Newark,
NJ.) "Motion Pictures As Stimulation for Written Lan-
guage and History." National Elementary Principal. 15 :
213-15. June 1936.

The procedure described treats only of the auditorium show-
ings held during the past five years for the purpose of overcoming
the language barrier of children who come from foreign-language
homes. Teachers use additional films in the classroom.

The use of history films in the auditorium has aided in
vitally improving written language work and in making Ameri-
can history something of a real experience rather than a confu-
sion of hazy ideas. The school is of the platoon type, caring for
1,800 pupils who come from homes where foreign languages
are spoken. The films used were the Yale Chronicles, the
Abraham Lincoln series, and the Citizenship series. One week
before a scheduled showing the teachers receive a summary
from the Department of Visual Instruction. This is circulated
among the teachers and discussed by pupils and teachers. The
film and text stories are compared; vocabulary is noted and
dictionaries used; the film episode is placed in its chronological
relationship to other films seen ; maps are used to place the locale
of the film.

The showing is held in the auditorium in the presence of
teachers and pupils. Forty of the 55 minutes are devoted to
the screening. Immediately after the showing, the teachers pro-
vide for socialized discussions in the classroom. In the ensuing
three weeks before another film showing occurs, the film ex-
perience is used to motivate written and oral expression. The
class-made outline of the film is used as a basis for oral talks
by each pupil. New words and phrases are placed on the board.

LARGE GROUP INSTRUCTION 243

The children take turns in telling their version of the story,
with corrections politely made at the end of each.

The written composition may be offered a paragraph at a
time, or by a complete story. The use of new words and phrases
in these compositions is encouraged. The principles of composi-
tion-writing variety of expression, use of new words, complete
sentences, unity are stressed. These compositions are examined
by the vice-principal, and one outstanding theme from each set
becomes part of a traveling exhibit sent to all rooms. Each
set of papers, with comments, is returned to the teacher, and
the individual compositions filed by each pupil in his folder.
Common errors noted by the vice-principal are incorporated
into a paragraph to be studied by all the classes.

PART THREE
SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

COMPILED BY

CHARLES F. HOBAN, JR.

SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

Most teachers and school administrators would readily
agree that the effective use of instructional materials in the
classroom depends in part on the care with which these
materials have been selected. They would also agree that
teaching materials should be selected with a view to their
relation, directly or supplementarily, to all aspects of the
objectives that have been accepted for teaching, to the appro-
priateness of these materials on various levels of pupil abili-
ties, and to the qualities of these materials which make them
easy for pupils to use and to understand.

Many of the materials of instruction commonly referred
to as "visual aids" were used in the classroom long before
the term was introduced into the educational vocabulary.
Comenius, for instance, introduced illustrations as an integral
part of the textbook when he published his Orbis Pictus in
the seventeenth century. Illustrations were included in the
New England Primer, the backbone of instructional materials
of the colonial period. Throughout the development of
American education, there has been an increase in the quan-
tity of illustration included in school textbooks. In recent
years a movement has developed which so emphasizes illus-
tration that printed materials are subordinated, particularly
in make-up, to pictures. The Building America series, pub-
lished by the Society for Curriculum Study, is an example
of this new type of study materials.

Accepted as are these visual materials of teaching in cur-
rent practice, it is natural to expect that sound principles for
their selection and use would have been developed, and that
in modern school practice these principles would be rigorously
applied. One would also expect that in the voluminous
literature of education, there would be an abundance of

248 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

discussion, of reports of experimentation, and of the de-
velopment of more or less standardized criteria for the selec-
tion of instructional materials.

But the administrator who searches for a scientific ap-
proach to his problems of selection and the teacher who looks
for authoritative advice to supplement her rule of thumb
criteria must stumble through the oak forest of educational
literature to find the few sprigs of evaluative mistletoe.
Two notable exceptions to this rule are the "Aids to Teaching
in the Elementary School," Thirteenth Yearbook, National
Elementary Principal, and "Materials of Instruction," Eighth
Yearbook of the Department of Supervisors and Directors of
Instruction, National Education Association, published in
1934 and 1935 respectively.

I. WHAT EVALUATORS HAVE FOUND

The wide use of textbooks in the classroom makes the
textbook illustration the most readily available of the visual
aids. Even in the selection of these currently used materials,
however, few principles have been adopted and fewer em-
ployed.

Melbo and Waterman * reported a study of pictures in
geography textbooks in terms of the criteria set up for the
selection of geography pictures in the Thirty-Second Year-
book of the National Society for the Study of Education.
It was emphasized in this Yearbook that

Pictures that show human activity or signs of human activity
in its natural setting are of high geographic quality because they
show or suggest (1) what man was doing in the place illustrated,
(2) the kind of a place in which he was doing it, and (3) the
ways in which natural and cultural facts revealed help to explain
the adjustments people there have made to their natural
environment. 2

1 Melbo, Irving R. and Waterman, Ivan R. "Pictures in Geography Textbooks."
Elementary School Journal, 36:362-76. January 1936.

2 Parker, Edith Putnam. "The Selection of Pictures." In Major Conclusions to
Be Drawn from the Investigations, Thirty-Second Yearbook. National Society for the
Study of Education. 1933. Chapter 10. p. 163.

SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 249

While pictures showing either cultural or natural setting
were stated to be of some use, it was indicated that pictures
"should stress cultural features in their natural setting."

Upon examining a number of current geography texts,
Melbo and Waterman found that on the average only be-
tween 20 and 25 per cent of the pictures included in these
texts were devoted to cultural-natural subjects, that many
portrayed only natural features, and that a surprisingly large
number were not related to the subject matter covered in the
verbal content of the texts.

The White brothers through their photographs of China
have demonstrated another important quality which must be
present in a good visual aid. James Henry White recently
explained the contribution which his photographs were mak-
ing in promoting international understanding, as follows :

"In the organization of material for teacher use and in our lecture
work we have tried to maintain a balanced picture of art and life. This
is very important in developing a visual program for our history and
geography classes. . . . For one thing (the pictures) have proved that
a beautiful still picture can be used as a means of educational entertain-
ment. The trouble with many still pictures is that they lack artistic
merit, and lack proper application of color. Art in visual education must
be the standard of merit. Slides and prints must not only depict works
of art, they must be works of art. It may cost a little more to produce
high quality visual material, but it will be worth the extra cost in a
definite reaction on the part of the student." 3

An interesting problem was found to exist among the
silent motion pictures available for the teaching of geography
when a short course in visual aids was offered February 6-14,
1937, at the School of Adult Education, General Extension
Division, University of Florida, Camp Roosevelt, Florida.
Here a committee of teachers from various Florida school
systems, under the chairmanship of H. F. Becker, of the
geography department of the Florida Women's College,
evaluated films and other visual aids from the same view-
point as Melbo and Waterman evaluated textbook illustra-
tions.

3 White, James Henry (Lake Ariel, Penn.) "China's Life and Culture
Visualized." Educational Screen. 16:118-19. April 1937.

250 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Of the twenty-four silent films evaluated during this
training program, only three were found to be "excellent"
in their inclusion of material showing (a) human activities
in their natural settings, and (b) natural features which
may be used in building concepts of cultural-natural relation-
ships. A film was considered "excellent" if over 85 per cent
of its content met the criteria, "good" if between 60 and
85 per cent, "fair" if less than 60 per cent, and "poor" if
less than 35 per cent. Films were rated separately for each
of the criteria. There were, however, few variations. If a
film was rated "excellent" for showing relationships, it was
also found to be "excellent" for concept building elements.
Six other silent films were reported to be "good," according
to the two criteria, and three of the films viewed were
reported to be of no geographic value, although produced
for use in elementary school geography classes, and the
remainder were divided between "fair" and "poor" classifica-
tions.

Among the sound motion pictures intended for geographic
instruction in the elementary schools and reviewed at the
Florida meeting, the situation was considerably worse. None
was found to be of excellent quality, only two were found
to be "good," seven were reported as of no geographic
value, six were reported as "fair," and one as "poor." This
situation was, in general, the result of the attempt to convert
theatrical travelogues into "instructional" films.

The film slides viewed were generally of inferior quality.
On the contrary, however, most of the glass slides reviewed
by the geography committee were reported as of high quality
for geography instruction.

II. DERIVING CRITERIA FOR SELECTION

The evaluation of visual materials undertaken at Camp
Roosevelt was not confined to the criteria of subject matter

SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 251

relationships. Elements of technical quality, utility for direct
or supplementary teaching, and appropriateness for specific
grade levels were considered in determining the values of
the visual aids for use in the Florida schools.

In any evaluation program three general criteria can be
established on the basis of the three basic elements of the
teaching situation : ( 1 ) what is being taught, ( 2 ) the chil-
dren doing the learning, and (3) the materials which are
to be used in teaching the children. Selection of teaching
materials must be made, in general, on the basis of their
contribution to the understandings, attitudes, skills, etc.,
which have been set as the objectives of instruction, on their
appropriateness to the needs, the age, grade, and mental
ability levels of the pupils, and on the basis of their technical
or mechanical qualities which make them good sources of
learning.

But these general criteria are subjects in the realm of
academic abstraction unless they are understood in particular
applications. There is a strong temptation to talk glibly
about "appropriateness to age, grade, and mental ability
levels" without attempting to ascertain what constitutes
"appropriateness" to these levels. Similarly, much is said
and written about "objectives of instruction," but teaching
is frequently a day by day series of specific lessons taught
from textbooks. Again, educators will agree that a picture
should be photographically good, but little has been done
to indicate what is desirable composition, what things in a
picture are worth while to a child, how much of this pictorial
experience is essential to proper concept building, etc. If
criteria for selection of instructional materials are to be
developed comprehensively in such form as to be applicable
by teachers in classroom situations, the three general criteria
enumerated must be reduced to more specific elements. The
teacher must know what makes a picture effective on the

252 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

third rather than on the twelfth grade level, as well as those
qualities which make it an effective tool of instruction on
any school level. She must also know how pictorial experi-
ence should be varied on these levels to conform to the
varied abilities of pupils.

There are two approaches to this problem. One is
through the analysis of the material itself, and the second
is through the analysis of pupil responses to this material
Both approaches are essential.

It is possible, for instance, to determine what teaching
material should be used to develop an understanding and
appreciation of the process of plant growth when there are
films available which show this process in time-lapse photog-
raphy.

It is also possible to determine in part whether a motion
picture on cotton is appropriate to the teaching of a particular
unit from analysis of its pictorial and verbal content. If one
of the major objectives of instruction is an understanding
of the steps in the process by which cotton is planted, culti-
vated, and prepared for market, any of several ordinary in-
structional films now available will contribute elements of
experience toward this objective. If, however, the objectives
of instruction are broadened into the context of human
relations if the problems of working and living human
welfare that are inextricably woven into the agrarian and
industrial relations of cotton are considered a process film,
of itself, will be insufficient. The addition of March of
Time's King Cotton's Slaves, which treats of the poverty and
futility of the sharecropper's existence, or the dramatic Cabin
in the Cotton, an adaptation of one of Paul Green's North
Carolina folk plays, will contribute to the development of
human insights and appreciations. As we cross our tradi-
tional subject-matter borders and approach our educational
objectives in their developing functional relations, we must
first analyze the experience which is essential to the full

SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 253

development of insights and understandings of integrated
wholes and then select those materials which contribute to the
enrichment of new integrated patterns of behavior.

Let us hold constant the objectives of instruction, and
consider the technical qualities of the photographic material
and its appropriateness to various levels of pupil maturity.
Immediately, we must face the question, "What makes a
picture good for second-grade children? for eighth-grade
children?"

The answer to these questions cannot be derived from a
purely logical analysis. We may, of course, assume that as
children grow older the number of elements shown in a
picture may be increased. But this rule is vague. It does
not help particularly in the practical situation where we find
children of widely varying abilities in any given school grade
and where we find widely overlapping abilities among various
grades.

In order to find the elements of instructional material
appropriate to various levels of pupil abilities we must look
to the pupils themselves. An experimental program must be
set up in which pupil responses to various types of material
are studied on various levels. In this way we can discover
what in the materials themselves make them good teaching
tools for pupils of varying abilities.

This experimental approach may be made in two ways,
the one through controlled experimental procedures, and the
other through the service type of study in which a teacher
adopts the experimental attitude with her pupils, varies the
conditions of instruction, and observes the reactions of her
pupils to these varying conditions.

Some controlled experimental investigations have been
made on the use of pictures and other concrete teaching aids
with children. MacLean * reported some data on the use

4 MacLean, W. P. "A Comparison of Colored and Uncolored Pictures." Educa-
tional Screen. 9:196-9. September 1930.

254 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

of color in pictures. For portraying distance, enhancing
contrasts, and conveying impressions of sunlight and warmth,
the use of color was reported to be superior to black and
white representation. On the other hand, he reported that
the use of color seems to have less value when the purpose
is to show architectural and engineering details, and that the
use of color may be actually harmful in concentrating the
observer's attention to portions of the illustrations.

General conclusions which may be drawn from other
experimental investigations, particularly as they relate to
the effect of pictures in motivating reading, have been sum-
marized by Goodykoontz 5 as follows :

1. Children like books that have at least a quarter of the
book space given to pictures.

2. Children like full page or fairly large pictures.

3. Children prefer strong colors.

4. Bold color groups with few but striking details are better
than many details.

5. Realistic pictures are preferable to conventionalized
pictures.

6. Action, humor, and a story are favorite picture types.

7. Young children like a broader range of picture subject
matter than they usually receive.

8. Young children do not care especially for pictures of
child activities.

9. Older children like pictures related to in-school and
informational interests.

A few attempts were made to determine what elements
of instructional motion pictures make them effective with
children. The results of these investigations were utilized
by Doane (7), in his attempt to set up criteria for the
evaluation of educational films.

The controlled experiment is, generally speaking, not
appropriate for use by the teacher in the classroom. The
teacher may lack the necessary statistical training and ex-
perience in experimental techniques. Even when this training

6 Goodykoontz, Bess. "The Relation of Pictures to Reading Comprehension "
Elementary English Review. 13:125-30. April 1936.

SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 255

and experience are available, it is difficult to arrange the
controls in varying classroom situations which are necessary
to so-called "scientific" results.

It is possible, however, for the teacher to adopt an experi-
mental attitude toward teaching and to use the classroom as
a laboratory for the study of child behavior and for the
development of the art of teaching. While this attitude has
been adopted by many teachers, the results of their study
have escaped publication. In part educational periodicals
are to blame for this situation. They have placed such an
emphasis in recent years on the reporting of so-called "objec-
tive data" in the journals that teachers are discouraged from
writing articles describing their teaching situations, what
needs were found from careful observation of children, and
what techniques were found to be effective in particular
situations. Consequently, the educational literature is dis-
couragingly free of articles of this sort. As a result, when
we search the literature for basic material on the evaluation
of instructional materials, we find relatively little that reaches
into the heart of the situation and offers specific help. There
is immediate need for service studies of pupil reactions to
various types of instructional materials and for the reporting
of these studies in the educational journals.

III. DIGESTS OF PUBLISHED LITERATURE

Of approximately 20 articles dealing with the selection
and evaluation of materials of instruction, particularly those
referred to as visual aids, a few have been selected as repre-
sentative and have been summarized. In these articles are
included most of the significant comments, criteria, etc., that
are contained in the others. They were selected for inclusion
here because of their comprehensiveness.

The first of the summaries deals with the selection and
organization of the materials of instruction, the second, third,

256 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

and fourth with the criteria for selecting pictures, and the
fifth, sixth, and seventh with criteria for selecting and evalu-
ating motion pictures, and the eighth with elements which
contribute to reality of pictorial experience.

(1) English, Mildred and Stratemeyer, Florence B. "Selec-
tion and Organization of Materials of Instruction." Eighth
Yearbook. Department of Supervisors and Directors of In-
struction, N.E.A. 1935. p. 129-48.

There is growing at a rapidly accelerating rate a vast body
of materials of instruction a wide range of books, magazines,
pamphlets, pictures, newspapers, maps, charts, exhibits, records,
and the like which suggest potential "service tools" in the teach-
ing-learning process. The teacher has the problem of the selec-
tion of such materials and the problem of refinement of the ma-
terials themselves. Both problems are contingent upon (1) a
knowledge of and acquaintance with available sources of ma-
terial, and (2) the ability to evaluate these materials in terms
of stated criteria or standards.

It must be recognized that any set of standards governing
selection are concerned with (1) the educational point of view
held, (2) the background, abilities, needs, interests, and (3)
the goals or purposes of that group.

The following criteria for selection of materials is presented
as being in harmony with educational principles upon which the
Yearbook is based.

1. The materials should be selected in terms of their bearing
upon experiences or problems being considered by the group.

a. Selected to give fuller meaning to daily experiences.

b. Selected for natural contribution to the development
of the experience or situation without imposing that
which is unrelated.

2. Materials should be selected to lead to an understanding
of fundamental concepts, generalizations, and principles con-
trols based upon facts and experiences which give power to
meet new situations.

3. Materials selected should be within the range of under-
standing of the group selected from real situations on the level
of the child's understanding and in accord with pupil interests
and needs.

SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 257

4. Materials should provide for individual differences in
ability, interest, and need provide for individual growth within
group activity.

5. Materials should be so selected and used as to help chil-
dren to grow in self -direction in the choice and evaluation of
materials.

6. Select materials, noting basic purposes for which the
material has been developed and test its validity in the light of
known truths and facts. Picture materials, as slides and films,
do not always tell the truth. A check on authenticity, sensitivity
to varied points of view and the continued search for materials
to make the several viewpoints available, and the recognition
of propaganda as propaganda are involved.

7. Differentiate in the selection and organization of materials
between those having permanent values and those concerned
with temporary or passing interests.

8. Selection should provide for balance and variety in types
of material. This is significant by way of

a. Acquainting pupils with a wide range of sources

b. Recognizing basic factors conditioning interest

c. Stimulating new interests through different media

d. Allowing for individual differences

e. Providing stimuli to the learner's own creative powers

f. Providing for the all-round development of the
individual

9. Materials should have appropriate mechanical make-up

a. Clearness and conciseness and interest value

b. Attractiveness, useableness

c. Mechanical durability and suitability

d. Proper methods of emphasizing important phases of
work

e. Convenience

The article also includes sections on the development of a
materials bureau and on mounting and preserving materials. 6

(2) Abrams, Alfred W. "Standards for the Selection of
Pictures." New York State Education. 19:281-3. December
1931.

More pictures are being placed before pupils than ever before.
Yet little thought is given to what constitutes the essential char-
acteristics of acceptable pictures for the work to be accomplished.

See Administration. Part One, p. 90.

258 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

If desirable results are to be obtained, pictures cannot be care-
lessly chosen or used, the pictures must have certain character-
istics. Some of these follow :

1. Truthfulness. It is as necessary that the pictures be
truthful as the written material. Yet pictures are found in
textbooks which give false ideas to children.

2. Authenticity. Portraits should be accompanied with data
as to the time; age of the person pictured; if a painting, the
name of the painter ; etc.

3. Quality. The quality of the picture, as well as the idea
which it expresses, is important if the picture is to be of the
greatest educational value.

4. Significance. A picture may contribute much or it may
be of very small consequence. A loss of time is involved in
the use of insignificant pictures.

5. Attractiveness. Facts should be presented in a pleasing
manner. The picture should have pictorial merit.

(3) Trolinger, Lelia. "Characteristics in Still Pictures for
Instructional Use in the Classroom." Educational Screen.
14:217-19. October 1935.

Suggestions for the rating scale were received from a group
contacted by a trial questionnaire. With these suggestions, a
new questionnaire was made and sent to about seventy of the
visual education experts of the country. There was general
agreement that the scale should be divided into two parts, techni-

Technical Quality 40 Points

A Picture Should Be: Mean Mode

Artistic 11 10

Clear and Definite 11 10

Free from Blemishes 5 5

Of Practical Size 7 10

Properly Colored 6 5

Instructional Quality 60 Points

Mean Mode

Truthful 15 15

Authentic 8 10

Relevant 11 10

Significant 9 10

Stimulative 11 10

Suggestive of Size 6 5

loo

SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 259

cal and instructional. The division of scale points on a 40-60
basis was almost unanimously adopted. There was considerable
variation in the individual point values assigned. The mean
and the mode are shown.

(4) Thralls, Zoe A. "The Selection and Use of Pictures."
Journal of the National Education Association. 21 :247-8.
November 1932.

Much of our present geographic knowledge has been accumu-
lated by actual landscape surveys and further observation must
be acquired in the same way. There the ability to read landscapes
is a basic skill. Since in school the observation of actual land-
scapes is limited we must use pictures. These must be used as
a source of information and as a basis for geographic reasoning.

A criterion for the selection of pictures for geographic in-
struction is established by the definition of geography. An ideal
picture of high geographic quality should show a human activity
in its natural setting. On this basis pictures fall into three
groups :

1. Those which possess inherent or primary geography
quality because of the completeness with which they show or
suggest the adjustment of man's activities to the natural
landscape.

2. Those which possess secondary quality because they do
not directly show or suggest such relationships. They have
value because atmosphere is conveyed even though the geographic
phase has to be conveyed by another picture or by words.

3. Those concerned primarily with cultural items which do
not suggest relation to the natural environment. Sometimes
these are necessary to convey concrete impressions.

In considering any picture to be used in geographic instruc-
tion, the teacher should ask herself two questions :

1. Does this picture contribute to an understanding of the
geographic relationships which should be developed in this unit?

2. Can I use it so as to bring out geographic relationships ?

Pictures may be classified on the basis of both quality and
use of pictures according to the following levels of geographic
instruction :

1. To give concrete images of specific natural and cultural
items in the landscape of a particular region. (Relationships
between food, clothing, shelter, means of travel, types of work,
and elements of the natural environment.)

260 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

2. Human use regions deals with the relationships between
the distribution of types of work and population and the natural
environment. Pictures connected with this level should be con-
nected with maps to give the idea of the distribution of particular
activities.

3. The country. Pictures should be selected with a view of
bringing out the outstanding adjustments in a country pictures
of the human use regions within that country. Proper balance
must be maintained so that the several activities of the country
shall be properly emphasized.

4. Countries where there are native populations and trans-
planted groups. Pictures should show the adjustments both
groups have made to the natural environment and bring out the
contrast between the adjustments of people with a different
cultural heritage in the same natural environment. A proper
balance should be maintained. The children should come to
recognize the influence of the original homelands on the trans-
planted people.

5. For the fifth level and beyond, pictures become of relative-
ly less importance. The pictures give comparatively few new
concepts but may be used in new combination, as for instance
the rubber industry raw materials and manufacture.

(There follow some suggestions for the use of pictures in
teaching. )

(5) Dale, Edgar. "Standards for the Selection of Classroom
Motion Pictures." Thirteenth Yearbook. National Elemen-
tary Principal. 13 :344-8. June 1934.

I. Do films harmonize with the objectives of the school?

1. Are visual aids necessary in attaining the objectives?

2. If aids are necessary, what type shall be used ?

a. The motion picture is dynamic ; it shows processes,
development, and change.

b. The still picture is static; it shows products and
results.

c. Perhaps an excursion will serve best for some
types of experiences.

d. Advantages of the film over the excursion.

(1) It is more economical of time.

(2) Only the materials necessary to understand
the process are included.

(3) There are fewer distractions.

SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 261

(4) The teacher can comment during the show-
ing of the film.

(5) Animated drawings can show processes
which cannot be seen by first-hand observa-
tion.

II. Is the material in the film accurate ?

III. Are the films satisfactory from a technical point of view ?

1. Sharp definition is essential,

2. Most scenes should be taken in closeups.

3. The acting of characters who are introduced into the
picture must be effective.

4. The photography should be steady.

5. All scenes in the picture should reflect good composi-
tion.

6. The animated drawings used in the classroom should
show careful planning and skillful rendering.

IV. Will the films be satisfactorily understood by the pupils ?

1. Titles and vocabulary

2. Length of film

3. Simple, unified, and coherent organization

a. Types of sequence

( 1 ) Chronological

(2) From familiar to unfamiliar

(3) Tracing development, as in a factory

(4) Causal

b. Transitions should be smoothly developed.

c. Nothing should obscure the central idea of the
film.

V. Will the cost and the total number of showings utilized
make films desirable investments ?

VI. Will the teachers use the films ?

(6) Brunstetter, M. R. "Selecting Educational Talking Pic-
tures." School Executives Magazine. 54:364-5. August
1935.

A film library should be made up of excellent films, other-
wise it will soon be cluttered up with inferior materials. The
instructional value of a film is the direct outgrowth of the care
and professional skill which has gone into its production. A poor
film may be just a waste of time or may even do positive harm.

262 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Standards on which to base judgments are important. The
material should be directly related to the course of study, it
should be presented in an interesting manner, and it should be
adapted to the child's level of comprehension. The technical
aspects of the film should, however, be considered in greater
detail.

Even with an appraisal form the rating is still more or less
subjective. Therefore, the rating should represent the combined
opinion of several skilled reviewers, using a common set of
standards. The film should be projected several times, so that
the reviewers may know thoroughly the objectives of the film, the
content and the method of treatment.

The work should be done with specific uses and purposes
for the film clearly in mind. Films show legitimate differences
when made for different purposes.

The following appraisal form is that used by a producer in
this field to guide the various steps in production and to evaluate
the finished product. On each item the film is to be rated as
excellent, good, fair, poor, or objectionable. In Mr. Brunstetter's
article other subdivisions are given, not included here.

Appraisal Form for Educational Talking Pictures

I. Objectives of the Picture

A. Clearness

B. Validity

C. Scope

II. Content of the Picture

A. Appropriateness

B. Accuracy of Content

C. Thoroughness of Content

III. Development of Content

A. Development for Unity

B. Development for Understanding

C. Development for Emphasis

IV. Technical Audio- Visual Elements

A. Treatment of Pictorial Material

B. Treatment of Sound Material

C. Cast

V. Contributions to Other Curriculum Materials

A. Contributions to the Same Field

B. Contributions to Related Fields
VI. Overview of General Effectiveness

A. Educational Values

B. Artistic Values
General Rating

SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 263

(7) Doane, Donald C. "What Makes a Good Educational
Film?" Educational Screen. 15:203-6, 239-41, 271-3, 305-7.
September, October, November, December 1936.

The problem of what makes a good educational film is
attacked in this series of articles from three standpoints.

1. What has been determined in previous experimental
investigations ?

2. What criticisms have been directed against educational
motion pictures?

3. What types of films do teachers choose ?

After studying the results of previous experiments, Doane
arrives at the following summarization of the desirable and un-
desirable characteristics of educational films.

Desirable characteristics :

1. Correlation with and integration into the usual course of
study for the subject and grade intended.

2. Limitation to presentation of facts.

3. Provision for future activity ; challenging future thought.

4. The best possible degree of technical perfection.

5. In general, limiting the length to one reel at most.

Undesirable characteristics :

1. Presentation of material which can be presented other-
wise, either by an identical presentation, or equally
effectively in another way.

2. Material familiar to the pupils for which the film is
intended.

3. Aims to create attitudes or to influence behavior, or
presentation of general ideas.

4. An excess of titles or pictures not involving motion.

5. An excess of maps, tables, and non-moving diagrams.

6. Teaching how to perform an activity (e.g., a laboratory
experiment).

7. Sound accompaniment consisting of a lecture only.

Important questions not established :

1. Relative effectiveness of otherwise identical sound and
silent films.

2. The grades in which the film is most effective. Tenta-
tively, however, the best opening for the film appears to
be the secondary school.

264 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Following are criticisms which have been directed against
educational films. In general, these are not backed by experi-
mental proof.

1. Films too long

2. Topic too large or broad

a. Attempt to cover too much subject matter in a
short time

b. Sequence and mode of attack predetermined

c. Attempt to be self-sufficient, replacing teacher,
books, demonstrations, etc.

3. Not adapted to pupils psychologically

a. Not suited for age level of pupil

b. Child's interpretation is not considered.

4. Subject of film poor

a. Could be better presented otherwise

b. Subject not worthy of place in curriculum

c. Pupils not interested in subject

d. Not conscious appeal to a specific learning; e.g.,
skills, ideas, attitudes, facts, insights.

5. Unity of subject matter lacking

a. Remotely related material added to complete reel

b. No continuity

c. Absence of main problem about which all scenes
or minor problems revolve

d. Minor points not subordinated to main point

e. Main problem not vital, gripping, interesting, or
appealing to curiosity.

6. Not challenging to further thought

a. Pouring instruction, not pulling ideas out.

7. Poor subject matter

a. Inaccurate

b. Unusual matters presented as typical

c. Figures on films are seldom remembered

d. Too many pictures not involving motion

e. Presence of details much better presented other-
wise

f . Visual experience familiar to pupils

g. Moving pictures when still pictures would serve
as well.

8. Mechanical details of film poor

a. Scenes are too short and fugitive

b. Poor proportioning of parts of pictures

c. Technically poor

d. Mechanical mode of presentation poor

e. Poor directing.

SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 265

9. No supplementary material supplied; e.g., teachers'
guides, etc.

In order to discover the types of films which teachers choose,
a study was made of the booking from the Department of Visual
Instruction of the University of California Extension Division
over a one and one-half year period. Only films of the 16-mm.
size, one reel in length, and renting for $1 were considered.

The popularity of films according to subjects was in the
following order: (1) physiology and health, (2) physical sci-
ences, (3) biology, (4) geography (industrial), (5) geography
(physical and human), (6) vocational guidance, and (7) nature
study.

An analysis was made of the films to find the influence of the
presence or absence of certain characteristics in determining
teachers' choices. The following conclusions may be drawn.

Geography Films

1. The film should be concerned with a country or region
prominent in the curriculum of the schools for which it is
intended.

2. It makes little difference whether the film deals with the
physical, human, industrial, or general aspects of the subject.

3. Local interest has little influence, except when the subject
is too much within the experience of the pupils.

Natural Science

1. For elementary nature study films, the results showed an
advantage in favor of familiar subject matter of unusual, non-
typical topics.

2. Films which consist of animals, plants, etc., merely pic-
tures and not built up as a curricular lesson, constitute the
poorest field studied.

3. The subject should have a prominent place in the
curriculum.

4. Films for secondary schools are more in demand than for
elementary schools.

Physical Science

1. The subject must be important in the curriculum.

2. A broad subject is desirable unless particularly adapted
to the curriculum.

3. Industrial films are not successful, when rental is charged.

266 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

4. Best subjects are those adapted to both secondary school
science and general science.

Other Subjects

History subjects should be ones prominent in the curriculum.
The price cannot be raised appreciably regardless of the length
of the film.

Civics and citizenship films are low in demand. This is a
difficult field in which to construct good films. They are likely
to become out-dated relatively soon.

Vocational guidance promises to be a good field. There was
considerable demand for films but disappointment was expressed
with the type of films available.

From a study of repeat bookings, it appears that teachers are
most favorably impressed with science films involving study,
presenting problems, and preferably strictly curricular in nature.
They are not quite so well impressed with films which are largely
illustrative, merely picturing animals or plants, and generally
unfavorably impressed with films involving acting or which in
any way may be compared with the current theatrical product.
Films involving acting must be expertly done if they are to be
successful.

There were two purposes in the collection of the above data :
(1) To provide a guide for the producer in constructing and
judging films; (2) To provide distributors with a check list
to aid in evaluating films the acquisition of which is contemplated.

A check list is given which has three main parts, i.e., sub-
ject matter, method of presentation, and technical make-up of the
film. Each has a number of subdivisions. There are in all
thirty-three statements to be checked. No weightings are given
the different points. Such weightings would be assigned by
subjective opinion. Furthermore, the absence of one trait alone
may be sufficient to condemn a film. A producer, distributor,
or those in charge of a school system will be interested in the
check list. The points mentioned should be kept in mind while
making a film. It will serve as a basis for judging a film to
be purchased.

A chart is shown which indicates the probable demand for
films dealing with various subjects. One contemplating acquisi-
tion of a film for distribution, or production of a film for sale
or distribution to schools will be interested in it. By means of
this chart one can roughly predict the probable demand for

SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 267

the film. (The check list and chart are included. Educational
Screen. December 1936, p. 306-7).

(8) Merton, Mineta (Waukesha Junior-Senior High School,
Wis.) "Vitalizing Teaching through the Correct Use
of the Still Picture." Educational Screen. 16:115-16. April
1937.

The new three R's of the child centered school may be classi-
fied as: Reality, reasoning, and research. Visual aids have
contributed richly in realizing these new trends in education.

In utilizing pictures there are several factors about a picture
which it is well to train children to consider :

1. Size 6. Depth

2. Temperature 7. Color

3. Motion 8. Odor

4. Sound 9. Speed

5. Distance 10. Weight

The applicability of these criteria to judging and using
motion pictures is obvious.

IV. SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following check-lists should be consulted. Because
they are checklists they have not been digested.

Devereux, Frederick L. "Check-List for Evaluating Educa-
tional Talking Pictures." Appendix in The Educational Talk-
ing Picture. University of Chicago Press. Chicago. 1933.
p. 204-10.

Hollis, A. P. "A Score Card for Judging Values of Informa-
tional Pictures." In Motion Pictures for Instruction. Cen-
tury Company. N.Y. Chapter 8. p. 197-207.

Weber, Joseph J. "Proposed Standards for Evaluating
Instructional Films." In Motion Pictures and Lantern Slides
for Elementary Visual Education. H. Emmett Brown and
Joy Bird. Bureau of Publications of Teachers College.
Teachers College, Columbia University. New York. 1931.
p. 5.

Articles by Walters, Shriner and Winchell in Part Two,
Section on Teaching Techniques, indicate some of the ways
in which pupil reactions were considered by the teacher in
selecting materials for further use.

PART FOUR
FILM PRODUCTION IN SCHOOLS

COMPILED BY

EDGAR DALE

FILM PRODUCTION IN SCHOOLS

INTRODUCTION

In 1923 the Eastman Kodak Company put on the market
its first 16 mm. camera. This fact of chronology is important
because it has genuine significance as far as the history of
the use of motion pictures in the schools is concerned. We
find further that in 1927-28 the Eastman Kodak Company
was beginning and carrying out its experiments dealing with
twenty 16 mm. motion pictures which they had made for
that purpose. In 1928 the Eastman Kodak Company began
the commercial production of 16mm. educational films. To-
day more than 225 of these films have been made available to
the schools.

With the advent of the 16mm. camera and greatly re-
duced prices of projection equipment, it became possible for
the amateur to experiment in the producing of his own films.
There followed a widespread making of motion pictures
dealing with family life, travel, and so forth.

It is interesting to note that out of the thirty-seven articles
presented here dealing with film production in the schools,
only two appeared before 1930, five before 1933 and thirty
between 1933 and the present. It is evident that more work
is now being done in the field. It should be pointed out
too that, like the iceberg, the greater part is below the surface
as compared with what one sees on top. There is a tremend-
ous amount of activity of this sort which has never been
written up for publication.

The writer had ample opportunity to secure evidence on
this fact at the first state-wide meeting ever held concerning
the production of motion pictures in schools, which took place
on the Ohio State University campus February 13, 1937.

272 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

At that time more than thirty-five educational and welfare
workers assembled not only to discuss films but also to screen
some of the films which they had made. In that conference,
three major problems arose : first, what aspects of school
activity lend themselves to the motion-picture photographic
process; and second, how shall we produce these films? A
third problem, not treated at all extensively in the articles,
but one very crucial in the minds of workers in this field, is :
how is the production of these films to be financed? Similar
problems are noted as one analyzes the literature in the field
of motion picture production in schools.

I. AREAS OF PRODUCTION

A. Creative Dramatics

Many of the film productions of schools have developed
in the "appreciation" area, including not only dramatics,
literature and art, but also motion picture appreciation.
Several articles and news items have been summarized in
the following pages to indicate the various ways in which
amateur cinematography was successfully used to enrich the
school curriculum. Some of the projects were undertaken
as part of the regular classroom work, whereas others were
extra-curricular in nature. English, social studies, Latin,
and character education, are some of the areas in which
dramatized motion pictures were used. It is hoped that these
accounts will be suggestive to teachers in other fields of
instruction.

Augustine, Harold M. "Creative Dramatics in Montclair
High School." Junior-Senior High School Clearing House.
7 :230-3. December 1932.

The author compares old and new methods of teaching
dramatics. Formerly the teacher chose the play (usually some
"classic") and picked out the "best" actors, who then put on
the play. The newer methods, however, bring in a variety of

FILM PRODUCTION IN SCHOOLS 273

student activity, and include the production of short plays and
one-act plays, even of student-written plays and films.

The first film produced by the dramatics group in Montclair
High School was humorous satire, "She Stoops to Crank'er."
The group also planned to correlate civic study and dramatics
through the production of a film based on the widespread com-
munity interest in town planning. In addition to the indirect
teaching of civic problems, the students derived certain values
from this type of activity. It gave an opportunity to learn to
act, without the drudgery of memorizing lines, and furnished
motivations for original reading and research in fields not
represented in textbooks.

A sample student scenario is included, titled "Peter Plans
Podunk." The story is that of Peter who, returning from col-
lege, convinces the townspeople that the town should be well
planned if it is to be selected as the site for a large motor produc-
tion plant.

Putnam, Sarah and Tompkins, Harrison. "The Park School
Drama Club Presents ..." Progressive Education. 13 :446-
53. October 1936.

The Park School, Baltimore, Maryland, wished to help its
students to understand the implicit values and deficiencies of
the motion picture. It was decided that this would be done by
giving the children an opportunity to produce their own films.
The high-school dramatic club of fifty boys and girls was eager
to do this work, since they had had previous experience in drama
as a craft, an art, and a business enterprise, and had lighting
and camera equipment.

A school-wide scenario contest yielded a script based on
Silas Marner. The theme of the story dealt with the necessity
of a human being to love generously. A synopsis of the four-
reel (2000 feet, 16 mm.) film is included.

The problems were threefold : to arrange the shooting
schedule within the time and place limitations, to bring together
the proper characters at the right time, and to find easily accessible
and filmable settings. The group took 2500 feet of film, traveled
around the countryside for settings and costumes, and learned
about make-up and acting. Work was done during the free
activity day every third Friday.

274 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

The actors were selected by the instructors, were well
cast, and acted naturally. Many were boys and girls who found
their first social experiences while working with a group on
the film. Costuming was done by using and refurbishing avail-
able costumes from school plays, or out of old attics. The
filming of two scenes in the ballroom and at the chimney place
is described. Then came the activities of editing, splicing, clean-
ing, advertising, preparing musical accompaniments, and the
final showing.

An attempt was made to defray the cost of production ($230)
by charging admissions to public showings of the film before
a second print had been made from the original. This proved
to be a mistake, however, since the film was scratched and marred
to such an extent that it could not be reproduced later.

The authors found that a short film would have been a better
activity than the long one attempted, that technical effects could
be improved by the study of still photography (a photography
club is growing out of this activity), that appreciation of com-
mercial films was unified and enhanced, and that the students
gained much in resourcefulness, self-confidence, and ability to
work together in carrying through a project.

Whitehead, Louise G. "The Motion Picture as a Medium of
Class Instruction." English Journal. 26:315-17. April 1937.

A first-year English class in a Los Angeles high school voted
to make a movie based on David Copperfield. A technical
committee was chosen to make plans for the film, student-owned
cameras were made available, and the student body purchased
three hundred feet of 16 mm. film. Nine scenes were selected
from the book and members of the class wrote each episode,
which was then criticized and re-written until the script com-
mittee was satisfied. "Sets" were planned by the art com-
mittee. The costume committee did library research, and even
borrowed the original costume "stills" from the M.G.M. pro-
duction of David Copperfield. This commercial production was
also viewed by the students, and it was decided that their own
"Scenes from David Copperfield" must be simple.

Tryouts were held before the class, under the supervision of
a student "director." Each child wrote a letter to his parents
explaining the project. Titles were written and filmed and the
scenes were taken out-of-doors, which saved the trouble and

FILM PRODUCTION IN SCHOOLS 275

expense of extra lighting. ''Flats" were utilized on the patio for
interior scenes, and most of the camera work was done during
the hour class period. The completed film was shown to two
hundred parents on "Open House Night" and to the school
assembly.

The author of the article declares, "I have directed no class
study of David Copper field in which a comparable knowledge
of the story was developed, nor a similar amount of thoughtful
written work done." She also states that this project "satis-
fied the three requirements of an instructional motion picture" in
that it "(1) provided opportunities for research and creative
effort; (2) produced a summarization that pupils and parents
could see and appreciate; and (3) gave a film that might be
shown to other teachers illustrative of experimental class
procedure."

Hamilton, Delight C. "An Experiment with Treasure Island."
English Journal. 20 :415-16. May 1931.

Committees of students in the Newberg (Oregon) High
School worked on preliminary steps to the filming of the story
Treasure Island. Written application was made by students
for assignments as scenario editors, managers, costumers, stage
men, and so forth. The story was read for scenes to be included
in the film. Scenario writing was studied, a continuity was
worked out, and the scenes were finally edited to fit a 400- foot
reel. Sets were prepared during activity periods, costumes were
designed, make-up charts were studied.

The film was then photographed, titled, edited, and a general
showing planned. Oral announcements of this showing were
presented to other classes in the school.

In general, this study of Treasure Island became a vital
experience for the students, long to be remembered.

"Wild West Film Produced by Doylestown Pupils." Na-
tions Schools. 17:76. May 1936.

Students in the photoplay appreciation class at the Doylestown
High School, under the direction of Margaret K. Lehman, head
of the English Department, wrote a burlesqued wild west story,
which was then filmed by the students. The production was
done on a farm, using a denuded buggy, a watch tower, and

276 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

railroad tracks. The sure-fire story centered about a lovelorn
heroine, a villain who tied her to the railroad tracks, and a hero
who arrived in the nick of time.

The students learned the difficulties attached to artistic
photography and the time and skill required to produce even
so small a film as this.

"Syracuse University Plans Film Production. Educational
Screen. 15:192. June 1936.

Syracuse University plans to produce a full-length 35 mm.
talking picture as a laboratory project, utilizing students enrolled
in a special summer cinema appreciation course for both players
and technicians. Selected for the experiment is Big Lake, Lynn
Rigg's study of adolescent youth in Oklahoma. Every effort
will be made to meet professional standards in this production.

"Character Education Courtesy." In Handbook for the Use
of Visual Aids. Bulletin No. 18. Board of Public Educa-
tion. Pittsburgh, Pa. 1929. p. 55.

A general program for developing desirable habits of courtesy
in the school, the home, on the street, and in society will be
greatly aided by the preparation of an original film in which
the students have assisted. The entire unit on courtesy will be
climaxed by the showing of this film.

Thornquist, Marie H. "Our Kindergarten Movie." Educa-
tional Screen. 14:82. March 1935.

The kindergarten movie entitled, "Dramatic Play in the
Kindergarten," represents a real unit as it developed in the
Clifford Street School, Los Angeles, California. The children
decided to build a colonial house and furnish it. They secured
their information about houses from a stillfilm roll showing
different kinds of homes, from magazine pictures, and from a
walk through the neighborhood. When the house was finished it
was very completely furnished, the furnishings being made by
the children. Cut-out pictures from magazines gave them ideas
for the furnishing of each room.

For some time after its completion the children derived much
pleasure from playing with the house. They took turns in
performing the various duties about the home. The play was so

FILM PRODUCTION IN SCHOOLS 277

spontaneous and natural that it was decided to attempt the
recording of what the children were doing in the form of a movie.
The cost was reduced by one of the patrons, who secured the
assistance of a Japanese cameraman in photographing the pic-
ture.

The film is of an entire unit which developed as it should
children leading, teacher guiding. Rehearsals were not used.
No two performances were ever the same. The performance was
truly spontaneous play, so that the cameraman was not obliged
to take the picture over again, in so far as the children's acting
was concerned.

Forrest, Elaine S. "A Novel Latin Project." Child Welfare.
25 :178. November 1930.

Students of the Classical Club of the Central Junior High
School, New Rochelle, New York, under the direction of Mrs.
Mary B. Albertson, wrote, acted, and presented their own film
version of "Atalanta and the Golden Apples." The project took
a whole year, meeting one-half hour weekly.

During the fall and winter, the students studied the life,
society, costumes and customs of the Greeks and Romans. They
then made the costumes, and used the school backgrounds for
settings. A student handled the photography and wrote the
titles.

The completed film was shown to the whole school and was
enthusiastically received.

Bailey, Helen M. "We Discover China." California Journal
of Secondary Education. 11:43-6. January 1936.

A unit on Chinese life had been prepared and published by
the author. An opportunity was afforded to teach this unit in a
ninth year social studies class in a Los Angeles school, for a
single period daily over a period of six weeks. The unit centered
around the making of their own films.

The students had studied the Crusades, and from this topic
proceeded to Marco Polo and his travels in China. The class
was organized to make a Modern Marco Polo Tour, with indi-
viduals and groups taking special "trips." Students used the
National Geographic Magazine, Asia Magazine, books from
school and public libraries, the teacher's collection of sketches,
Chinese prints, embroidery and handicrafts.

278 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

They were anxious to visit and make film records of Chinese
homes in Los Angeles, Chinese students at the University, and
Chinese restaurants. Sixteen dollars worth of film was
purchased.

First there was a preliminary filming of a Chinese restaurant
and an ancestral family temple. Students then selected their own
directors and technical workers, and began to work out a scenario.
Further films were taken of sunken Chinese gardens, Chinese
curio stores, as well as a Chinese play put on by the students
and other classroom activities. Editing was done by the group
as a whole, titles were suggested, and a committee did the
mechanical work of splicing. A contest for the best name
brought, We Discover China.

The students mimeographed their own invitations for the
film showing and wrote up the project in a large book. The
film received a favorable write-up in the school paper.

Katz, Elias. "Making Movies in the Class Room." Clearing
House. 11:153-6. November 1936.

The article is based on the author's experiences with film-
making at the Lincoln School and the Horace Mann School
for Girls, Teachers College, Columbia University.

Film-making arouses intense student interest. Students are
faced with special problems requiring the exercise of initiative,
resourcefulness, and intensive research. Moreover, all work
proceeds on a cooperative basis.

Some of the problems in film production which students
and teachers face are : selection of the theme, preparation of the
script, planning the settings, designing the costumes, conducting
the necessary research, acting, photographing the action, editing
the continuity, preparing sound effects to accompany the show-
ing, and finally planning for the big performance.

Synopses are included of Brothers of Altamira, a film on
primitive life, which shows the struggle of two brothers against
the wicked old Chief of the tribe, and their love for one another,
and Their Adopted Country, which details the life of a group
of Italian immigrants and their adjustment to a new society in
America.

Some groups went out on excursions, looking for "material"
and settings, making contacts and meeting situations requiring
self-control and ingenuity. Acting produced best results when

FILM PRODUCTION IN SCHOOLS 279

filmed directly following brief rehearsals. Editing was an im-
portant part of the activity, involving classification, rough
assembling of scenes, and final adjustment of sequences.

Values from this activity include permanent learnings which
develop out of highly self -motivated activity and countless
opportunities for creative expression in dramatization, building
sets, costumes, visits. Also, there is a discipline which comes
out of selecting and judging which scene, actor, or costume is
most appropriate at a given point. Students and teachers who
participate in this activity develop a keener and more critical
attitude towards the motion pictures they see in theatres. The
author suggests that making films is one of the best ways of
developing a true appreciation of motion pictures.

B. School News Reels and Public Relations

Probably a good many of the early production efforts
of a school will concern themselves with recording student
activities. These films may be used for various purposes. In
some instances the newsreel is used to develop school spirit
and inspire student cooperation in school activities. Occa-
sionally, these films are made for purposes of publicity, and
in some cases the films are filed as a historical record of
activities carried on at the time of production. Newsreels
and films of school publicity are usually presented before the
student body as a whole, parent organizations, citizens'
groups, or at commencement.

A few experiences in making newsreels have been sum-
marized below.

Stenius, Arthur. "The High School Newsreel." High School

Journal 18 :233-7. November 1935.

The newsreel at Detroit Western High School was introduced
as an extension of the school newspaper. Those in charge
believed that the newsreel could be intensely interesting to stu-
dents. Adolescents like to see themselves and their friends on
the screen. Admissions of five and ten cents could be charged
and the venture made self-supporting. The athletic department
saw the possibility of using it to stimulate interest in athletics, as
well as to give an opportunity to show athletes the errors which

280 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

they made in their performances. It was believed that the innova-
tion would be useful in stimulating interest in other school
activities, such as club outings and class plays.

Since the motion-picture equipment of the school was
obsolete, it was necessary to secure a 16 mm. projector as well
as a camera. A used camera, films, and a new projector were
secured for a little less than one hundred and fifty-five dollars.

The student in charge was an editor who had long indulged
in photography as a hobby. The school bulletin board, with
movable white letters on a black background, was used in making
titles. The first reel made included a novelty introduction, scenes
of the school, photographs of various members of the staff, the
principal congratulating the editor and business manager of
the paper on the accomplishment, scenes during football practice,
shots of a tennis match, action pictures taken during a football
game, and many shots of students about school.

The program for the first showing included the newsreel,
a one-act play, and two reels of animated cartoons. A loud
speaker system which a student had constructed was borrowed.
Records were played for the animated cartoons and a member of
the newspaper staff acted as commentator for the newsreel.
At a later presentation the commentator sat near the front of
the auditorium and used a megaphone. On one occasion a cheap
speaking device and radio were used.

One newsreel was presented each month. The auditorium
was filled for the showings and the venture was a paying one.
The pictures taken were of good quality and the scenes sufficient-
ly varied to maintain interest.

The school that takes up the newsreel is assuring itself
of an activity that will receive increasing support from the
student body. It is a practical extension of the service offered
by the school newspaper.

Boos, Harold O. "The Motion Picture Camera in the School."
Sierra Educational News. 30 :17-18. October 1934.

The motion-picture projector has become quite common in
the schools, but the camera is still unusual there. This should
not be the case, for there are many uses to which the camera
may be put to make for a more effective school.

The first experience with the camera at Cypress Elementary
School, Orange County, California, was with the taking of shots

FILM PRODUCTION IN SCHOOLS 281

from a local ball game. This film was shown as a newsreel at
one of the public school movie shows. Patrons and children
were enthusiastic about it. The school now has many feet of
basketball, baseball, and track scenes. Besides being useful
as entertainment they are used in pointing out form used in
the game.

Pictures taken during a fire drill showed the boys and girls
just how the school acted. Ways of improving the drill were
discovered.

Upper grade science classes had been studying house flies.
During a field trip many breeding places of flies were found.
These were photographed and later shown. The children saw
that the fly problem was a practical one, and plans were made
for eliminating sources of flies. The study of the mosquito
was handled in the same way.

Another interesting reel was taken of a Mother Goose play
which was produced by the second grade.

The school board purchased some land adjacent to the school
grounds to be used for building purposes. Motion pictures
were taken of this land as it was when it was bought, after it
was first cleaned, and after it had been graded. When building
starts, the process will be followed with the camera.

It is planned to take pictures of certain children who have
difficult health problems. These will be taken from time to time,
showing improvements as a remedial program is followed. Such
a film should win converts in support of better health supervision
in the schools.

Child, Eleanor D. and Finch, Hardy R. "We Have Made a
Newsreel." Connecticut Journal of Education. 21 :7-8.
March 1937.

The fifty members of the Photoplay Club of the Greenwich
(Connecticut) High School decided to produce their own news-
reel. The necessary funds were raised by showing a rented film
in the school auditorium and charging admission. Two months
before the newsreel was actually photographed, the plans were
made. The club members wrote to various sources of informa-
tion concerning amateur movie photography, such as the National
Board of Review and the Amateur Cinema League. They be-
came "newsreel conscious" and studied issues of March of Time
and other newsreels.

282 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

It was decided by the production committee that the usual
activities of the school would be of most interest to the student
body, therefore a list of possible activities was made and certain
ones selected. The film was carefully planned, the various shots
were diagrammed and footages calculated. The first scene
presented the school fire drill; the second showed the school
cafeteria; the principal was photographed speaking over the
school public address system ; other scenes showed the metal
shop, work in the home economics laboratory, and so forth.

The scenes were taken on one school day so that the regular
school program would not be interfered with, and the members
of the club spent their study periods "on location." Arrange-
ments were made in advance and equipment collected. This
equipment included : a 16 mm. camera and tripod, a light meter,
four reflectors on stands and four small clamp reflectors, seven-
teen 750-watt photoflood lights, three 100-ft rolls of panchro-
matic film, three of supersensitive panchromatic, two 800-ft
reels, a splicing outfit, and miscellaneous articles such as double
sockets and extension cords. The menu board from the cafeteria
served as a title board. Six scenes were taken, consisting of
from two to five shots each. During the next week, a few other
shots were taken around the school, and titles averaging from
three to five feet were made.

After the film was developed, a revised continuity was agreed
upon. The scenes were practically all well photographed, so
very little cutting had to be done. One of the students prepared
a newsreel comment to accompany the showing of the film after
it was finally edited and ready for presentation.

Keeler, Otis. "The High School Goes Hollywood." Illinois
Teacher. 23:112. December 1934.

The problem involved was that of getting across to patrons
of the school and to its alumni the importance of the high school
and where it fitted into the scheme of education. Commencement
provided an opportunity for this presentation, and previous
commencements had dramatized the school in various ways.

A graduate student at Rose Polytechnic Institute in Terre
Haute filmed high-school activities during the year in agricul-
ture, home economics, and a student council discussion. The
film was very successful in showing the public the value of the
high school, and it may be used later for comparative purposes.

FILM PRODUCTION IN SCHOOLS 283

Apple, Joseph H. "Amateur Motion Pictures an Aid to
Effective School Publicity." Educational Screen. 8:186.
June 1929.

School events since 1926 at Hood College (Frederick, Mary-
land) were filmed for the purpose of preserving them in con-
venient form, not only for use as publicity and propaganda but
also for the personal enjoyment of students, faculty, alumni
and others. Originally the school was given technical assistance
by a professional worker, but later they handled the production
independently.

The film first shows the school and campus as a visitor might
see it, then depicts the work of the physical educational depart-
ment, and finally presents pageants on graduation, May Day,
and so forth. It is shown to incoming students, and to groups
on request.

"Vocational Summary." School Life. 21 :15. September 1935.

A unique feature was introduced into the commencement
program of the Central Needle Trades School of New York
City. Instead of the regular commencement address, arrange-
ments were made to show several reels of motion pictures illus-
trating the activities carried on in connection with the courses
offered by the school. The scenario of this film was carefully
prepared with a view to comparing conditions during the early
history of the school with present-day conditions. Activities in
the school shops and in the classroom were featured in the films.

"Motion Pictures as a Means of Educational Interpretation."
Journal of the N.E.A. 25 :233. October 1936.

A movie of school life and activities was made last year at
Saginaw (Michigan) High School. From the first day of school
through the spring activities, more than 1500 students and teach-
ers were photographed in classroom, at athletic events, at gym,
school parties, meetings of student organizations and in office
scenes. Faculty members cooperated in rehearsing, directing,
and preparing the script. By means of an amplifying system,
the production was made to resemble a talking picture. The
result an hour and three quarters motion picture, What You
Missed gives a complete picture of high-school life. The
movie was shown two nights, and the large school auditorium

284 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

was inadequate to accommodate the number of people desiring to
see it. This film will be invaluable, not only as an interpretive
medium, but as a historical record of the year's activities.

Kling, Evelyn Lovett (Public Schools, Atlanta, Georgia)
"The Use of Visual Aids in Teaching History and Geog-
raphy: An Illustration." Educational Screen. 14:200.
September 1935.

A fifth grade geography class studying ancient Greece devel-
oped a play based on the Euripides version of "Iphigenia in
Aulis." The words of the play, poems, and dances were prepared
by the children. For purposes of record, a motion picture was
made of the dramatization.

Schoenhof, Madeleine T. (Teacher, Anne Hutchinson School,
N.Y.C.) "A Continuous Visual Program." Progressive
Education. 13:463. October 1936.

The Anne Hutchinson School is made up of 2,400 children
with a median I.Q. for the school of 85. The construction of
the Federal Hillside Housing Project directly opposite the school
building led to the development of an intensive activity program
over a period of several semesters. During the first term the
school children were interested in the construction work. They
investigated the uses of cement, sand, bricks, tiles, plaster, paint,
lumber, lathes, cement mixers, hods, and other materials. Fathers
visited the school and answered the children's queries regarding
the different kinds of jobs. Unions, guilds, apprenticed workers,
and master workmen were distinguished and analyzed. A
study of wages and family expenditures brought out interesting
facts. Each class became some particular type of worker. When
practical, the "painters" beautified some of the school furniture,
the "iron workers" fixed a spindle on a stairway. Songs and
plays were composed based on the activity of building construc-
tion.

The next semester, when the building accommodating 5,000
people had been completed, the students received permission to
use a four-room-and-bath apartment to furnish and occupy
for one month. The preparations for furnishing the apartment
took sixteen weeks, and one month was allotted for being "at
home" in it.

FILM PRODUCTION IN SCHOOLS 285

The furnished home was open for inspection by the children
during the day and by parents at night. In groups of four or
five at a time, the children "lived" in their home for short
periods. After a month the apartment was dismantled for
occupancy by a tenant.

A record of these activities has been made on a 400- foot
reel of film.

Bragdon, Clifford. "Movies in the High School." English
Journal. 26:374-80. May 1937.

One of the activities of the Photoplay Club of the Hawken
School, Cleveland, Ohio was taking newsreels of school events,
Several hundred feet of such newsreels have been edited.

This experience has not been entirely satisfactory, but it has
taught the boys several important techniques, for instance, why
it is well to have the director as editor, and the difference be-
tween motion in a picture and a mere picture of motion. This
sort of thing is laboratory learning.

Kuckuk, H. M. "Technical High School Film in Color."
Educational Screen. 15 :258. October 1936.

The Boys' Technical High School, Milwaukee, used a color
film, made in the school, as a part of its graduating exercises.
The film, "From Drawing to Drilling," brought to parents the
operations as they were carried on by their sons in the shops
of the machinists' division of the school. Short explanations by
students preceded the various portions of the film. The color
no doubt added glamour to the scenes presented, and the slight
sacrifice of detail due to the necessity for using large stops for
color was unimportant under the circumstances. The picture
was filmed with a camera presented by the graduates as a parting
gift to the institution.

C. Amateur Films as an Instructional Aid

In some schools, analysis of available motion pictures
for instruction revealed them to be inadequate. Teachers and
students cooperatively, or independently, have been known to
undertake the production of teaching films to serve specific
ends. Such an activity is valuable to those cooperating and

286 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

to those subsequently using the films for purposes of refer-
ence.

The most extensive program of independent film pro-
duction is noted in the Milwaukee Vocational School, whose
activities have been summarized here. Freeman reports the
successful use of amateur films to supplement instruction in
an evening class of adults. Financial assistance was secured
in this instance through selected industrial concerns. The
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the University of
Iowa, and Teachers College, Columbia University, respec-
tively, have used independent motion pictures as aids to cer-
tain areas of instruction.

A pioneer effort in film production for ' 'propaganda'*
purposes is revealed in the report of the film made in a
Seattle High School to illustrate health precautions to be
observed during the summer months. The news items of
safety education campaigns in Muskegon County, Michigan
and Tulsa, Oklahoma indicate another successful use of films
for teaching a lesson.

Kruse, William F. "How One School Makes Its Own Teach-
ing Films." Educational Screen. 10:109-10. April 1931.

The Milwaukee Vocational School with an enrollment of
15,000 pupils, had to produce its teaching films for its own
particular needs. Its junior high school includes boys and
girls 14 to 16 years old, attending school for half -days, and out
working the rest of the time. The senior school includes boys
and girls of 16 to 18 years, who attend school only one full
day per week. The student body is never the same on any two
successive days. At the same time, there is a need for training
in specific trades and skills, although only one-half to one-
quarter of the usual school time can be devoted both to these
specific trades and to the cultural background.

A department of visual instruction was organized, with four
teachers and one assistant. Each teacher produces a 600-ft.
16 mm. film every two weeks, to fit his section of a pre-deter-

FILM PRODUCTION IN SCHOOLS 287

mined curriculum. Each week, two films are produced on
biology, personal problems, general science, and safety.

Equipment includes a Bell and Howell Filmo 70 DA, with
various lenses, three projectors, and lighting equipment totalling
16,500 watts. The school cost is less than $200 per reel, where
a commercial estimate for the same job would be $2500 to
$3000.

Developing, printing, animation, titles, and photography are
done at the school. Films are produced only for school use.
Thus far, films have been produced on the Business of Living,
Flowers, Birds, Bees, Heat, Light, Gas, Liquids, Solids, Fire,
Pedestrian Safety, First Aid, Industrial Safety, Posture, and
Money.

Freeman, G. L. "Visual Aids in Adult Education." Educa-
tional Screen. 16:9-10. January 1937.

The instructor of an evening college class at Northwestern
University, whose members were too tired to listen to straight
lectures each evening, realized the need for using visual aids.
Available commercial films were found to be unsuited to the age
level and subject matter. Consequently, the students and in-
structor undertook to produce a series of 16 mm. sound films to
illustrate the topic of each weekly lecture and to serve as a basis
for further class discussion.

The films are generally shown early in the lecture hour for
their interest value and because of questions which they will
raise in the minds of the audience. The instructor then clarifies
some of the questions and proposes new ones. Often the film
is re-run near the end of the hour, the class having been told to
look for certain special items. When the film presents an actual
experiment, the data are copied from the screen upon mimeo-
graphed forms and detailed results worked out for later pre-
sentation.

One method of financing the production of these films has
been through selected industrial concerns.

"Another Release in College Series." Educational Screen. 14:
128. May 1935.

A new film, The Graphic Representation of Machine Opera-
tions, has just been completed by the Division of Visual Edu-
cation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. A machine

288 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

drawing is first shown. Then all operations called for in the
drawing are shown, including drilling, tapping, boring, counter-
boring and countersinking. Lathe and hand work are depicted,
as well as the operations of planer and gear cutter, and external
and internal thread cutting.

Three motion pictures which presented in visual animated
form the behavior of an electric wave as it travels through a
250-mile transmission line were previously released by this
division.

Barnes, Ralph M. "Motion Pictures for Teaching Special
Courses to Engineering Students." Educational Screen. 13 :
70. March 1934.

In order to study the methods and organization of manufac-
turing enterprises, engineering students at the University of
Iowa are given instruction and practice in making motion pic-
tures of typical operations in shops and offices. Photography is
carried on in the Motion Study Laboratory. After the films
have been made and processed, the students analyze them and
work out better methods for performing the operation.

Katz, Elias. "On the Cost of Instructional Films." Progres-
sive Education. 13 :459. October 1936.

A professor of fine arts in a teachers' college wished to pro-
duce a film for clarifying art concepts, for showing to art teach-
ers, and for use in art classes in junior and senior high schools.
Filming of the subject took one afternoon, and the total cost
was less than twenty-five dollars.

The author believes that simple instructional films can be
easily and inexpensively made by the amateur.

Rarig, Arthur. "How a High School Produced an Education-
al Movie." Educational Screen. 7:269. December 1928.

The Health Committee of the Roosevelt High School in
Seattle decided to make its own film on health, since the long
summer vacation was approaching and certain warnings were
needed for the safety of the students. Those who remained
at the shore must learn to handle a canoe or row a boat safely,
to wait an hour after eating before going in swimming, never to
drink doubtful water, to recognize poison ivy, to realize that

FILM PRODUCTION IN SCHOOLS 289

sudden and prolonged sunburn is dangerous and that life saving
and first aid should be familiar to everyone.

English teachers prepared a scenario with titles; the teacher
of dramatic expression became the dramatic director; the art
teacher attended to make-up, and the girls' gym teacher (an
amateur film fan) did the filming. The actual photographing
was done one Saturday in May, at a summer camp ground. The
film was called What Price Folly? Lettering for the titles was
done by a manual training student, and the splicing by the teacher
who took the film. The expense was borne by the Boys and
Girls Club of the school.

A synopsis of the story is included.

Elliott, Paul A. "Rural School Children Produce Movie;
Lessons in Safety Illustrated by Boys and Girls of Muskegon
County." Michigan Educational Journal. 9:894. January
1932.

This film on safety in traffic was directed by W. J. Berichon,
the county traffic officer. School children, teachers and neighbors
cooperated to make the film a success. It consisted of 500
feet of 16 mm. film and cost less than one hundred dollars. The
motion picture illustrates the right and wrong ways of conducting
oneself on the highways and in autos.

"Safety Education Brings Results." Journal of the N.E.A. 24:
307. December 1935.

Tulsa, Oklahoma schools will use motion pictures this year
in attempting to repeat the record of last year, when not a Tulsa
child was killed by an automobile accident. Movies showing
traffic hazards and children crossing the street are taken at
each school. There will also be pictures of students crossing
the streets in the safest manner. Children will be given lectures
in these methods when the films are shown.

II. TECHNIQUES OF PRODUCTION

Having selected his area of production, the amateur film
producer is at once faced with a number of technical prob-
lems. In order to meet this need for technical information
the Educational Screen presents a monthly column by F. W.

290 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Davis of Ohio State University on "Film Production in the
Educational Field." Abstracts of the monthly issues of this
column from January 1936 to January 1937, inclusive, are
included herewith. They will be found to give in compact
form a great many helpful suggestions regarding the mechan-
ics of motion-picture equipment, lighting, editing, titling,
planning, directing, constructing the scenario, and the like.
Each month the column deals rather thoroughly with a
specific topic, such as projectors, lenses, film storage, color
film, etc.

Davis, F. W. "Film Production in the Educational Field."
Educational Screen. 15, 16. January 1936 through January
1937.

January 1936. Films prepared by authorities and by indus-
trial concerns have in some cases been too general to be of maxi-
mum service for certain types of classroom use. To meet this
objection there is a growing interest in the production of instruc-
tional films by educational institutions. Such films should be-
come a very important and valuable part of our present
educational system.

Production of satisfactory films is not simple. Satisfactory
production involves many factors with which one should become
familiar before attempting such work. Prospective producers
must know the mechanics of motion-picture equipment, types of
lighting, editing, and how to select titles. It is also important
to be familiar with planning, directing, arranging the proper
sequences, building the scenario, acting, and problems of this sort.

February 1936. One of the major types of educational film
is that which shows a continuous process of some sort. The
construction and manipulation of a puppet show, the steps
involved in getting a water supply, and the clinical diagnosis
and treatment of a disease are examples of this type of subject.
The subject will, obviously, be one in which the process is of
prime importance. The film should have sufficient continuity
so that when it is run off without pause the student will have
a well-rounded conception of the entire process illustrated. The
photographic technique is also of great importance.

FILM PRODUCTION IN SCHOOLS 291

One of the major considerations in picture making is the
quantity of light. Even with large-dimension lenses and fast
films good light in sufficient quantities is needed. The idea
that the diaphragm is primarily for the purpose of regulating the
amount of light is erroneous. When aperture is reduced the
focus is much sharper than when it is large. The light should
be adjusted to the aperture opening rather than altering the
diaphragm to suit the intensity of the light.

March 1936. (Camera Equipment). The type of equipment
to buy for school use is an important problem. Only the best
and most versatile cameras should be used to make teaching
films. The initial cost of the equipment is small compared to
the cost of the film which will eventually be consumed in the
production of films. Nothing is more exasperating than to find
that after using a certain camera for a while it has definite limita-
tions which prohibit it from being used at maximum efficiency.

Another consideration is the type of lens to purchase. The
size of the image obtained on a film is directly proportional to the
focal length of the lens. A good combination for a modest
outlay would be a 1" lens and a 2" lens. A more desirable
combination would be a 15 mm., a 1", a 2", and a 4". The lower
the "F" value the larger the effective area of the lens and the
greater the amount of light admitted. The 1" F 1.9 lens is
standard equipment on most cameras. The 15 mm., or wide angle
lens for the inclusion of large areas, can be had in the F 2.5
model, a very satisfactory lens. The 2" lens may be obtained
F 1.5 but the F 3.5 model gives sharper images if the speed may
be sacrificed. In the 3", 4", and 6" lenses for outdoor work and
limited indoor work the apertures rarely go below F 4 or F 4.5.

By all means purchase a variable speed camera. This will
make possible the taking of "slow movies" which are very valu-
able in certain types of work. For this purpose the picture is
taken at 32 or 64 frames per second. If you want to add a sound
track the picture must be taken at 24 instead of the usual 16
frames per second. It should be remembered that at the higher
speeds much more film is consumed.

April 1936. (Projection Equipment) In purchasing a
projector one should buy only a high grade machine of sufficient
power for the use to which it will be placed. One should never
purchase less than a 500 watt size for school use. A larger
bulb may be advisable because, (1) Greater power will enable

292 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

one to have sufficient light for dark prints or to accommodate
the occasional large group, and (2) If the machine has a variable
resistance and voltmeter the life of the bulb can be materially
increased by using it at less than the prescribed voltage.

For most school use the standard 2" lens is satisfactory.
For projection distances of 50 to 100 foot it is necessary to use
a 3" or 4" lens.

A power rewind saves many valuable minutes in rewinding
films.

The ease of threading the machine is important.

A small pilot light is a distinct advantage.

The aperture plate should be easily accessible and so con-
structed that it can be readily cleaned.

May 1936. (Film and Exposures) The length of the film
will depend on the subject to be treated. Enough footage should
be taken to allow for cutting and editing. In the average film
one takes about 30 per cent more footage than is used.

The type of film to use is always a question. For exterior
photography by sunlight the cheaper orthochromatic type is
perfectly satisfactory. When sunlight is used one may use a
comparatively slow film and still have plenty of leeway in speed.
If an interior set is to be photographed only the highest speed
panchromatic film should be used. A safe rule to follow is to
have more speed than necessary in a film rather than to be on
the margin.

Exposure meters should be used to get the correct exposure of
film. Either the photoelectric cell type, or the type where the
operator looks through the meter and estimates the exposure by
visual methods will give good results if properly handled. You
must become perfectly familiar with the particular type of meter
being used, and then use common sense in interpreting the results.

Tripod support is very necessary. Get a model constructed
heavily enough to give a firm support for the camera. It should
possess a tilting and panoramic head with an efficient locking
device.

June 1936. (Errors in Film Production) The most common
-errors in the production of films are :

1. Underexposure, resulting in films so dark that the picture
cannot be seen clearly.

2. Out of focus or slightly blurred pictures due to incorrect
measurement of the distance from camera to subject.

FILM PRODUCTION IN SCHOOLS 293

3. Overexposure, resulting in pictures that are thin and washed
out, with very little detail.

4. The omission of close-ups or enlarged sections, resulting
in monotony and loss of interest.

5. Unsteady pictures, resulting from trying to hold the camera
in the hand or from using a poor camera.

6. Weak titles, or failure to make titles concise and full of
valuable data.

7. Faulty lighting, or faulty exposure for the lighting at hand.
The better films are lighted very brilliantly and the lens
stopped down to compensate for the intensity.

8. Other weaknesses are: subject matter unsuitable for the
medium of the picture, and improper length of film. Some
films would be improved by cutting, others need more footage
per scene and more explanatory scenes.

October 1936. (School Production Program) One way
to secure teachers trained in picture taking is to have an educa-
tional program in the high school. The high school pupil will
derive much pleasure from taking pictures of his associates.
He may develop a technique for illustrating his school reports.
Photography makes a worth while leisure time hobby.

The school as well as the pupils will benefit from such a
program. Pupils may make lantern slides, eventually building
up a very useful library. The pictures for the school annual
could very well be taken by interested pupils. There is no
reason why movies of school activities could not be taken. If
such films were exchanged between schools they would give
each school an excellent opportunity to find out what other
schools are doing.

The question of the cost of such a program arises. Equip-
ment need not be expensive. If the equipment is carefully
selected by a competent person it could be one of the least ex-
pensive of school activities.

November 1936. (Color Film) Considerable caution should
be exercised in the use of color film. A determining factor should
be whether color will be a worthwhile addition to the picture.
In order to produce a good color film one must not only under-
stand the correct exposure, development, manipulation of the
camera, lighting, and composition, but one must also have a
knowledge of color and color harmony. ';

294 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

One should become proficient in using the easier black and
white and then, but not until then, try color film. For the first
few productions try just one or two sequences in color and the
rest in black and white, as many films are produced in this
manner.

Color film costs about 20 per cent more than black and white.
At the present time it is impossible to make duplicate color prints.
The projection of color films requires greater brilliancy of
illumination.

December 1936. (Sound Film) Sound films may be pro-
duced by one of three general methods. One is to record the
image and sound directly on 16 mm. film. Another is to record
the image and sound on 35 mm. stock and later through optical
reduction to transfer it to 16 mm. size. Still another is to record
the image on 16 mm. film and later record the sound on 35 mm.
film, then reducing it to 16 mm. and synchronizing the two.
Experience has proven that the latter two methods are more
desirable from a quality standpoint. Unfortunately, these
methods are expensive.

In sound recording the pictures are taken at 24 frame?
per second instead of at 16 frames as in silent pictures. Since
the film passes the lens more rapidly, more light is needed. This
is a practical problem which must be faced. Furthermore the
cost of the film will be increased 50 per cent.

Rather definite acoustical problems must be solved. Actors
must also be trained to act naturally as well as to speak into a
microphone.

Possibly the most satisfactory method of producing 16 mm.
sound films at minimum expenditure is to take the 16 mm. pic-
ture in the normal manner but at 24 frames per second, and then
after the film is completed have a recording laboratory take care
of the sound angle.

January 1937. (Storage and Preservation) Storage of
motion pictures evokes the problem of fire hazard. They may
be produced on Cellulose Nitrate Film which burns at 230 F.,
and if insufficient air is present while burning, gives off dangerous
gases, or on Cellulose Acetate Film which is about as flammable
as ordinary paper. All 16 mm. films in this country and some
35 mm. films are of the non-inflammable type.

In order to prevent films from curling and becoming brittle,
proper humidity is necessary. A relative humidity of 50 per cent

FILM PRODUCTION IN SCHOOLS 295

is ideal. Too much water vapor and the resulting condensation
of moisture on the films is also harmful. Films should be placed
in individual metal containers which contain an absorption pad,
kept continuously moist.

Brittle films may be restored to their original condition by
replacing the moisture content. By a special rehumidification
process this may be done in ten to thirty minutes. Otherwise
it may require several weeks for them to come back to their
original condition.

Maintenance of proper temperature is important. With
proper humidity, a temperature of from 50 to 70 F. is
satisfactory.

In addition to the technical suggestions given in Davis*
column the following articles contain further hints as to
desirable equipment and effective methods of handling it.
Gramet emphasizes planning and arrangement but also dis-
cusses equipment and gives suggestions concerning editing
and titling. Lewis and Deady's article describes correct
techniques in the use of equipment and also makes a number
of general suggestions.

Gramet, Charles A. "Making an Educational Movie." Edu-
cational Screen. 13:5, 40-1. January, February 1934.

Many commercial pictures are not of the type best suited
to classroom use. It is the belief of the author that the capable,
experienced teacher, with an interest and some ability in picture
making, can make a definitely worthwhile contribution by making
films.

Planning a motion-picture lesson is very much like planning
any other lesson. The topic must first be chosen. The topic is
only suitable for a motion-picture lesson when a motion picture
will serve better than any other type of presentation.

The film materials must be so arranged as to stimulate interest
in the lesson itself. The ideas that are to be presented in the
lesson should be selected and the film planned around these, with
no extraneous material included. Many films include too much.
The selection of the material will depend upon the purpose for
which the film is to be used. More material can be included in

296 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

a film designed for review purposes than for one planned for
presentation of new material. The film lesson should conclude
with a generalization, review, or application.

The film continuity should be very carefully planned and
followed. Shots need not be taken in the order in which they
are to appear in the finished film, since the order can be cared
for in editing and cutting.

The plans must be made according to the equipment available,
and one should study to make the best possible use of his equip-
ment. It is difficult to determine the minimum amount of equip-
ment necessary. The following minimum list should make
satisfactory results possible.

1. A 16 mm. camera with a reliable spring motor and shutter.
A film capacity of 100 ft. is essential.

2. A tripod is necessary in order that the camera be held
stationary.

3. Adequate sources of light are needed. The new photo-
flood lamps are very satisfactory. However, 500 watt
projection-type lamps will prove economical in the long run.

4. A suitable lens should be used.

5. A photometer is essential.

6. A good steel tape is cheap and reliable for measuring
distances.

The picture should be so planned that if the projector were
stopped at any instant the picture would be pleasing. The interest
in each scene should be centralized and not scattered. There
should be proper balance. Unity is necessary. Everything in
the picture or scene should contribute to the idea that is to be
conveyed.

If children are included, little attention need be given to
make-up. Select children of intelligence, free from distracting
defects. Stilted and artificial acting should be avoided.

Rehearse the scene as often as necessary, then take. Take
more footage than necessary, to allow for cutting. It may not
be necessary to take the entire scene; include the beginning and
the end. The length of shots is very elastic, not less than four
or five feet per shot sometimes being recommended.

Most amateurs use reversible film. The author prefers
negative film. Though somewhat more expensive, the results
are better.

FILM PRODUCTION IN SCHOOLS 297

Proper editing is important. The author prefers to project
the positive on the screen to see the action rather than use a
viewer. He cuts the negative of the film as he views it, cutting
out parts that will be omitted. The parts to be used are spliced
together in the desired order. The film is then projected and
again revised, perhaps some scenes are retaken The film is then
run through without interruption. Notes are taken and any
further changes made that seem necessary.

The film is now ready for titling, which may be done by the
amateur or commercially made. Commercially made titles are
not very expensive and are time-saving.

The language of the titles should be checked against word
lists for difficulty. Titles should be relatively short, pointed,
suggestive, and challenging. The number of titles should be
limited. The film must be a picture of things, processes, and
activity, not words. Twenty-five per cent of the film given to
titles should prove adequate. About one-half second per word
is sufficient time to allow.

The estimated cost of making a reel of film is from $50 to
$100. It may be argued that films could be purchased for less
money. The primary interest, however, should be not in reducing
cost, but in improving teaching films. A good picture will
yield many prints, thus reducing the cost per copy.

Teachers should not refrain from making pictures for fear
that sound pictures w r ill make their work obsolete. It has not
been demonstrated that sound is a necessary part of most teach-
ing films. Where sound is essential in conveying the idea or
forming the concept, it is an improvement in methodology to
use it. The teacher can refrain from using that type of subject.
When the author becomes convinced that a lecture is a necessary
part of the film, he will employ a commercial company to attach
the necessary sound to his film. Sound should not deter teachers
from making good teaching films.

Lewis, Alexander B. and Deady, John A. "Produce Your
Own Movies: Plan for a High School Photoplay Club."
Scholastic. 29:15. November 21, 1936.

The authors point out that members of the high-school photo-
play club are able to write, act, produce and exhibit films. The
school movie club can: (1) assist in the visual education pro-
gram of the school, (2) develop appreciation of motion pictures,

298 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

(3) complete the production of films. The present article is
concerned only with the last phase.

The first problem in production is the basic equipment
camera and projector. The authors recommend purchasing a
sound projector. Equipment can be paid for by putting on
special benefit showings of the club's early productions. Two
shows each month should yield money for the equipment fund.
In buying a camera, it is advisable to secure one which can
make trick titles, produce dissolves, fades, and so forth.

Correct use of equipment can be learned either by formal
instruction or by informal experimental handling. An exposure
meter should be used. Some useful accessories, such as a
movable dolly for moving camera shots, a fade-out device, series
parallel floodlight switches, reflectors, titling boards and the
like can be built by students in the school shops.

The operation of a movie camera is best explained by the
use of a still camera. Lenses, focal distances, color filters tie
in with optics of physics ; film development ties in with chemistry.
Many other correlations are possible. Good pictorial composi-
tion, best scene lengths, camera angles, tempo and the like are
based on planning, experience and instruction.

With respect to lenses, a 1-inch fast lens (either F 2.8 or
F 3.6) should be used for interiors and color work ; a 3-inch
telephoto lens for outdoor games; and a wide-angle lens for
close classroom shots. For lights, the minimum equipment
consists of two mogul photofloods, two broad spotlights, one
spotlight, and two reflector sets. Titles may be easily made on
titling boards, either hand lettered or using removable letters.
The authors point out dangers from mishandling equipment.

They also recommend affiliation with the Amateur Cinema
League, and reading of their organ, "Movie Makers," as well as
affiliation with 4-Star Clubs of the National Board of Review
of Motion Pictures.

A film production program might include "a film made as
a civic enterprise, a film produced in cooperation with a large
department store to emphasize vocational guidance, a film show-
ing library usages, a film on safe driving and walking, made in
conjunction with the motor vehicle bureau. The club might
make pictures on biology, art, sewing, shop work, commercial
subject techniques, literature, mathematics, sports techniques
in fact, on any subject related to school life."

FILM PRODUCTION IN SCHOOLS 299

In producing their own films, students go through an experi-
ence with rich vocational possibilities. Aptitudes and skills are
developed which may influence choice of vocation. Girls usually
prefer photography and film criticism to acting in the films.
Boys excel in technical work; girls in editing, splicing, and
constructing productions. The opportunities to design sets and
costumes, to prepare stories and to write scripts, to act, or to
use the microphone appeal to many students as an incentive for
joining the club.

The following group of articles deals not so much with
the mechanical aspects of production as with technical plan-
ning. Space points out the importance of planning and
organization, and gives certain suggestions regarding the
making of sets and the preparation of a scenario. Gramet
urges amateur producers to study the techniques of the
theatrical film. Although Johnson's article deals with still
pictures rather than films, his discussion of the reasons for
taking the picture, the use of the finished picture, and the
importance of interest appeal is also pertinent to film produc-
tion in the school. He suggests that teachers cooperate with
professional photographers in planning pictures. Hadley's
article contains an appeal for teacher-made pictures.

Space, Kenneth F. "Amateur-Group Film Producing with
Economy." Journal of Educational Sociology. 10:172-6.
November 1936.

Most of the unexpected pitfalls usually encountered in
amateur motion-picture production can be avoided by careful
planning and systematic procedure. The group expecting to
make a film should not consider the task too easy and thus fail
through the unwillingness of the individuals to make the neces-
sary sacrifices of time and money after the novelty has worn off.
Nor should the task be considered too difficult, since one should
expect to have fun and enjoyment while making a picture.

Let us assume that a group decides to make a picture and
looks for a story to film. The group should first be organized,
giving special consideration to the interests and capacities of

300 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

the various individuals. The fundamental divisions of a photo-
play-producing group are directorial, photographic, electrical,
property, and clerical.

Next, a play or plot must be selected. Comedies and mystery
thrillers are usually not successful when done by amateurs. A
simple plot should be chosen. To make the problem less
complicated, it is probably best to limit the first film to 400 feet.
The story should serve a socially useful purpose. If imagination
is brought to bear, this will not mean a dry and uninteresting
plot.

After writing the story in scenario form it should be broken
up and a script book made. This will include all details concern-
ing the filming of the picture, such as costuming, length of shot,
etc. The script clerk should be able to find the answer to any
question concerning the production in a few seconds.

It is better to use amateur players than to waste much time
and money in hiring semi-professional actors. Select stories to
fit the types and ages of your group. Unless very carefully
applied, make-up is almost always detectable.

Instead of artificial sets, use real ones as much as possible.
If the play calls for a tenement setting, a social service agency
can find one which the tenants will be glad to let the group use
for a few dollars.

If a photocell exposure meter is used one cannot miss on the
score of exposure. Fast lens and supersensitive film save money
in lighting equipment, bulbs, and current. Satisfactory lighting
can be secured by the use of rather simple lighting equipment, as
by using a No. 4 photoflood bulb and a few simple and inex-
pensive reflectors.

Each scene should be rehearsed four or five times, then filmed
two or three times at the most, and in most cases good results
will be secured. Filming each scene twice is less expensive than
going back for retakes, as might be necessary had the scene only
been taken once.

Gramet, Charles A. "The Non-Commercial Teaching Film."
Progressive Education. 13 :454-5. October 1936.

Teachers who make their own films will increase their own
effectiveness in using films in teaching. Poor technical jobs,
however, should not be tolerated, since it is not difficult to master
the basic technical aspects of filming.

FILM PRODUCTION IN SCHOOLS 301

The author urges educational film makers to study theatrical
films. From them can be learned the secret of interest,
continuity, close ups, and how scenes are "short enough to be
interesting and long enough to cover the subject." Student
organizations in schools could well invest funds in such work.
Teachers who are interested in film making should be encouraged
and even subsidized.

Johnson, Laurence B. "What Makes A Good Picture." Edu-
cational Screen. 13:152-3. June 1934.

This article is not concerned with the use of pictures in
teaching the child, but with their use in getting the public to
know and appreciate the school. The chief concern is with the
picture taken in the school. As the school gains in freedom,
as pupils more and more learn by doing, schools lend themselves
better to picture-making.

Still pictures are attempts to concentrate into one instant
what has been done over days and weeks and months of effort
in the classroom. To accomplish this much thought must be
given to what one is trying to do and how he is going to do it.

The first step is to decide why the picture is being taken.
If the purpose is to tell a story or project an idea, the faces
of specific children do not matter. The object then is to arrange
that picture which best tells the story.

The second matter for consideration in connection with a
picture is its use. If it is not planned to reproduce it, one finish,
a soft one, may be most desirable. For reproduction a glossy
print will be needed. If it is to be reduced in size, simplicity
and sharp contrasts take on great importance.

The third consideration is the interest appeal. This involves
selection of a person or thing that is interesting. Pictures
should treat of timely incidents. If pictures of a school activity
are being taken and one wants the public to be interested in it,
take the picture before the event, not after it is over. Another
vital factor is to have those in the picture doing something. A
photograph of someone doing something has a one hundred
per cent better chance of catching the eye and the interest than
a mere picture of faces. Finally, do not hesitate to add to the
picture, if necessary, something that will be definitely interest-
building. The photograph of a teacher about to retire after
thirty-five years of service will not be nearly as interesting as

302 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

one which shows her with her first pupil on one side and her
youngest pupil on the other.

Should the teacher take the pictures or should a photographer
be employed? It is unlikely that the teacher can take pictures
good enough for the public. The professional photographer
has the equipment, background, and training to fit him for the
task. Not every photographer will do satisfactory work. He
should know what a news picture is, what a good picture is, and
how to work with teachers and pupils to get best results.

The teacher might make all the plans and expect the photog-
rapher to follow them. Or she may expect the photographer to
do all of the planning. Neither method will get the best results.
Best results will be obtained by cooperative effort. The teacher
should explain to the photographer what she wants, and in
return receive the best thought of the photographer in making
the picture.

An editor welcomes good pictures. They break up those
vast dreary expanses of type. They actually save space, telling
quickly and dramatically the story that would take many words.

Hadley, Allan M. "The Value of a Camera in the Hands of
the Teacher." Educational Screen. 13:192. September
1934.

The author refers to the use of a still camera, but the edu-
cational values are similarly applicable to the motion-picture
camera. Most teachers agree that pictures are valuable. But
there is one drawback to the use of these aids the pictures were
not taken by the teacher using them. When the teacher can say,
"As I took this picture I was particularly impressed by ... etc.,"
the picture takes on a new value to the pupils and carries its
point with much greater ease and effectiveness.

The teacher will object that he does not travel and could
not get worth while pictures, and that he does not know any-
thing about a camera and couldn't take pictures that would be
good enough to use in the classroom. Without doubt he will
discover that he travels more widely than his pupils. Further-
more, many valuable lessons can be taught with local materials
in picture form.

With a little study and practice, anyone can make good
pictures. Cameras are simple to operate and films have been
greatly improved in recent years. There need be no great out-

FILM PRODUCTION IN SCHOOLS 303

lay of money for the original equipment, but when the teacher
recognizes the value of this aid he will want eventually to pur-
chase a more expensive and more versatile instrument.

The neophyte will not secure 100 per cent results. If
50 per cent of the pictures are usable he should feel satisfied.
"Practice makes perfect" is a motto that it is well to keep in
mind when beginning this work.

PART FIVE

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH IN
INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS

BY

CHARLES F. HOBAN, JR.

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH IN
INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS

INTRODUCTION

Experimental study of the motion picture in classroom
instruction began shortly after 1915. Among the first ex-
periments reported was that of David Sumstine, published
in School and Society in 1918. Whatever limitations this
investigation may reveal in the light of more recent teaching
techniques and experimental methods, it was, nevertheless, a
beginning of experimental study of the role of the motion
picture in instruction.

Within the six years following the publication of Sum-
stine's study and culminating in the publication of the Uni-
versity of Chicago study in visual education in 1924, research
developed rapidly. The general problem attacked was the
instructional function of the motion picture in relation to
(a) other visual aids such as slides, demonstrations, maps,
and the like, and (b) the more traditional classroom pro-
cedures utilizing purely verbal instruction by means of text-
books, supplementary reading, and so on.

Among the pioneers in this phase of experimentation were
the late Joseph J. Weber, F. Dean McClusky, and Frank N.
Freeman. Weber devoted himself largely to the attempt to
discover the relative values of the motion picture, the slide,
and the diagram accompanied by verbal instruction, in the
development of informational learning. McClusky's investi-
gation was more extensive in pupil population, range of sub-
ject matter, and increased variation of the technique of
motion-picture use. While his general problem was much
the same as Weber's, McClusky introduced a broadened con-
ception of motion-picture technique, varying the number of

308 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

projections and the kind and amount of verbal accompani-
ment.

Freeman's early contribution was directive, experimental,
and editorial. He directed the research undertaken at the
University of Chicago under a grant of $18,000 from the
Commonwealth Fund, conducted some of the experimental
studies, and edited the published report of the investigation.
Thirteen studies were reported dealing with the comparison
of various modes of presentation of motion pictures with
other visual and nonvisual methods of instruction in a wide
variety of subjects of the curriculum.

The University of Chicago studies were intended to de-
fine in broad general terms the functions of the motion pic-
ture in instruction. Its superiority over other visual aids
was determined to be the depiction of motion, and its place
in the instructional procedure those learning situations in
which "it is essential to grasp the nature of movement."
Freeman also postulated a second function, less clearly evi-
dent at that time from experimental data, as the arousal of
interest and the sustenance of attention. He pointed out
the need for further experimentation to establish this func-
tion.

With functions of the motion picture in education thus
broadly defined, experimentation from 1924 to 1930 was
extended to the problem of the contribution of the motion
picture in arousing various types of pupil reactions, par-
ticularly in the social studies. Wood and Freeman undertook
an extensive investigation under a grant from the Eastman
Kodak Company to determine the contribution of the motion
picture, when used as an integral part of classroom teaching
procedure, in (a) motivating greater pupil activity in relation
to the subject studied, (b) increasing factual learning, (c)

1 Frank N. Freeman. Visual Education : A Comparative Study of Motion
Pictures and Other Methods of Instruction. The University of Chicago Press. 1924.
p. 74.

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 309

improving descriptive processes, and (d) promoting under-
standing of causes, effects, and relationships.

At approximately the same time, Knowlton and Tilton
were investigating the functions of the Yale Chronicles of
America photoplays in (a) motivating greater pupil activity
and classroom participation; (b) increasing knowledge of
historical chronology, historical geography, historical per-
sonages, and interaction of events, causal relationships, and
interrelationships other than time; and (c) increasing
permanency of learning in these various aspects. Whereas
the Wood and Freeman investigation was extensive, the
Knowlton and Tilton investigation was intensive, and
whereas Wood and Freeman secured their measures of
motivating influence of films from reports of cooperating
teachers, Knowlton and Tilton devised methods of securing
quantitative data on this problem. Regardless of the meas-
ures employed, the results of the two investigations on the
problem of motivation were in essential agreement.

In England during this same period Consitt was at work.
Abandoning as too limited in its possibilities the objective
method of measuring results of instruction, she secured re-
ports from a large number of teachers and pupils throughout
England on (a) the values accruing to the use of the motion
picture in instruction, (b) its adaptability to various age and
grade levels, (c) the nature of pupil responses, and (d)
technical imperfections of available motion pictures.

The experimental studies of the 1924-30 period differed
from those reported prior to 1925 in that:

(a) The motion pictures which were used for experi-
mental evaluation were specifically constructed for instruc-
tional purposes, while those previously used were in many
cases films produced by industrial concerns for indirect adver-
tising purposes.

310 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

(b) The instructional periods were of sufficient length
to permit organized use of several films and the accumula-
tion of reliable results.

(c) The motion pictures were used as an integral part
of the instructional procedure in addition to the traditional
media and procedures of instruction.

(d) Wider sampling was made of pupil population, teach-
ers, age-grade, and mental-ability levels.

(e) Learning outcomes were more finely differentiated
and more accurately measured.

(f) Indirect outcomes, such as greater classroom par-
ticipation, increased voluntary reading, etc., were studied.

(g) Permanent as well as immediate results of motion
picture instruction were investigated.

(h) Comparative effectiveness of motion-picture instruc-
tion with various age-grade and mental-ability levels was
measured.

(i) Objective measures were supplemented by reports of
teachers and pupils on their experiences with the instruc-
tional motion pictures.

Up to 1930, however, research was limited to the use of
the silent films. Meanwhile, sound accompaniment had been
added to motion pictures. During the past six years the
general trend of experimental research has been in the direc-
tion of (a) the effectiveness of sound motion pictures in
informational learning and the development of thinking in
various subject-matter areas, (b) the relative effectiveness of
various methods of verbal accompaniment to motion pic-
tures, and (c) the effectiveness of both sound and silent
motion pictures with large and small classes. Arnspiger and
Rulon investigated the effectiveness of sound pictures pro-
duced for and used with definite units of instruction. Clark,
Westfall, and Einbecker evaluated the effectiveness of various
methods of verbal accompaniment to films. The problem of

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 311

the effectiveness of motion pictures with large and small
groups of pupils was investigated by Stoddard, who com-
pared sound motion pictures in auditorium showings with
traditional nonvisual methods in the classroom, and by
Knowlton and Tilton, who compared the auditorium and
classroom use of silent films.

Characteristic research developments of this most recent
experimental investigation are: (a) extended investigation
of problems previously isolated; (b) use of sound motion
pictures in experimental classes; (c) greater correlation and
integration of motion pictures with the curriculum; (d) more
intensive study of smaller and better controlled experimental
groups.

During this same period a series of studies on the social
influences of the motion picture, including a study of learning
in the theatrical situation, was carried on under the direction
of W. W. Charters, of Ohio State University. These studies
were subsidized by the Payne Fund and are generally known
as the Payne Studies. 2 Because they deal with the theatrical
film apart from the purely "instructional" film, treatment of
these studies is omitted from this discussion. By their im-
plication these studies are, however, of great instructional
significance, and in the broad sense of the word treat directly
the ' 'educational" influence of the motion picture.

In this review of trends since 1915 in instructional
motion-picture research, reference has been made only to the
major published studies, most of which were subsidized by
some agency interested in the use of films in education. Dur-
ing the entire period many smaller and more restricted
investigations were carried on independently, generally by
graduate students in partial fulfillment of requirements for
advanced degrees. The result of this independent research
has been, in general, the extension of data on problems

2 Charters, W. W. Motion Pictures and Youths A Summary. Macmillan. N.Y.
1933.

312 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

already investigated; but, on the whole, the findings have
been less reliable than those already available in the major
studies. There are, of course, notable exceptions to this
statement. One criticism applies rather generally to these
independent studies. For the most part, they show little
recognition of the general problems of motion-picture effec-
tiveness revealed or investigated in previous studies.

I. CRITERIA FOR EVALUATION OF EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH IN GENERAL

Many attempts have been made to establish basic prin-
ciples for the conduct of experimental educational research,
but few of these sets of principles are in such form as to
be of value in the evaluation of research studies already
conducted and published. The rapid increase in the number
of published studies of an experimental nature, and the
growing tendency on the part of readers of such studies to
accept the results and conclusions without a critical evaluation
of the basic data and the methods of their derivation make
the postulation of a set of criteria for the evaluation of
experimental research not only desirable, but necessary. The
criteria listed below, developed by Douglas E. Scates, director
of school research, Cincinnati Public Schools, were selected
as the most applicable to the evaluation of film experiments. 3

These criteria are: (1) Significance of the problem, (2)
Selection of factors for study, (3) Assumptions, (4) Appro-
priateness of general procedure, (5) Significance of raw
measures, (6) Representativeness of sampling, (7) Adequacy
of data, (8) Analysis of data, and (9) Interpretation of
observations and of analytical findings.

1. Significance of the problem. For the purpose of
evaluation the relative "significance of the problem" investi-

3 An account of the derivation and application of these criteria will be pub-
lished elsewhere by Dr. Scates and the writer in the near future.

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 313

gated in any experiment is regarded as lying in its cruciality
either to educational or psychological theory, on the one hand,
or in its practical utility on the other hand. The problem
is or is not "significant" in so far as it meets the question,
"How important is the answer to the problem?" Of secon-
dary importance is the formulation of the problem; that is,
whether the problem is defined so as to reveal the essential or
crucial differences in the variable or variables being studied.
Of tertiary importance is the investigator's adequate con-
sideration of the results of previous investigations; that is,
whether the problem is repetitive, whether it is unique, or
whether the experimenter sought additional data on a prob-
lem already investigated.

2. Selection of factors for study. If the problem is
significant to educational theory or practice, the next criterion
of evaluation is the analysis of the problem into specific
issues or aspects; that is, whether the experimenter isolated
the problem into specific subordinately related problems. In
evaluating the selection of factors for study, the question
must be asked : "Are the factors studied actually the causes
of the results?" When and if this question is answered in
the affirmative, it becomes necessary to determine whether
the factors isolated for study by the experimenter are discrete
or greatly overlapping. If the former condition obtains, it
is necessary for the purposes of evaluation to consider the
potential conclusiveness of the factors studied whether they
are adequate, and whether, when taken together, they will
give a definite answer to the problem. If the factors are
overlapping, it is necessary for the experimenter to study
their relative effect on the data secured and the peculiar
nature of their interrelation. Finally, there remains for the
purpose of evaluation the question of whether all the factors
were studied by the experimenter which would throw light
on the main problem. It is in this respect that many research

314 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

studies fail to attain conclusiveness. Too often do the inves-
tigations merely open up the problems for study by failure
of the investigators to probe the causes of variation of data
derived under somewhat varying conditions.

3. Assumptions. The first two criteria were devoted to
the significance of the problem and the extent to which the
experimenter isolated factors for study. Before the experi-
mental procedure employed to investigate the problem may
be considered, assumptions must first be examined that are
basic to the technique of investigation and the interpretation
of results. The extent of assumptions, their reasonableness,
and their recognition by the experimenter are seldom ex-
plicitly discussed. More often, they are implicit in the ex-
perimental report; still more often, they are entirely ignored.
In the evaluation of research, no other single criterion is as
important as the clear recognition of the assumptions by the
experimenter and the degree to which these assumptions are
reasonable or justified. Validity of data and their interpre-
tation rest primarily upon the assumptions upon which they
were derived.

4. Appropriateness of general procedure. The actual
experimental attack on the problem comes next in the critical
evaluation. The most important criterion regarding the pro-
cedure is its appropriateness to the investigation proposed
whether it is potent, suitable, and searching. The general
procedure must be such that it throws into relief the causes
of results, of crucial differences, and so on. Unfortunately,
the equated-group procedure is widely used in experimental
investigations in the field of education despite the manifest
impossibility of equating all factors which influence results of
instruction.

Involved in this adaptation of technique is the control of
irrelevant factors during the experiment. Correspondingly
involved is the law of the single variable, under which all

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 315

variables are held constant except the one being investigated.
In educational research, this law is a principle to be approxi-
mated, not a condition readily obtained.

Still another subsidiary consideration is whether all the
significant data were secured from the basic sources through
the experimental procedure, or whether the acquisition of all
significant data necessary to the solution of the particular
problem was approximated.

5. Significance of raiv measures. The criteria from this
point are extended to cover actual measures secured through
experimentation. Of highest importance in the evaluation of
the raw measures is the validity of the procedures employed
to secure them. In the evaluation of the "significance of raw
measures," validity and reliability will be considered as highly
related functions. If the reliability of a test is not estab-
lished, its validity is open to question, for among other things
a test must measure consistently in order to be a valid
measure of the function.

Of additional importance to the "significance of raw
measures" is the normality of the situation under which they
were obtained. Raw measures, in order to be significant,
must be secured under conditions which are normal with
regard to the phenomenon measured.

How significant raw measures are to a problem can be
appraised by answering the question : "Of what function
and to what degree are the raw measures actual measures?"

6. Representativeness of sampling. A further necessary
criterion of data is the sufficiency of the sampling. Data
must be gathered over a large enough area, long enough time,
wide enough age group, and under sufficiently varying condi-
tions to insure the typicalness of sampling. Thus defined,
representative sampling includes not only pupil population
but instructional procedure. In many educational investiga-
tions, the instructional period is not sufficient in length to

316 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

provide the type of results which are necessary for conclu-
sive evidence.

7. Adequacy of data. After the significance of the raw
measures and the representativeness of the sampling have
been evaluated, the additional factor of adequacy is necessary
to validity of conclusions. The question, "Were data secured
to meet all purposes of the experiment?" is the real test of
adequacy. With data secured by means of the control-group
technique, a further consideration is the statistical adequacy
of differences. In the investigation of functions which are
so highly correlated that the establishment of statistical re-
liability of differences is difficult, a consistency of difference
in several measures may be considered an index of reliability.

8. Analysis of data. The experimenter's statistical
analysis of data is the next criterion of evaluation. This
analysis should be not only appropriate, accurate, and com-
plete, but also such as will reveal all the significant items
gathered in the investigation. Statistical analysis which stops
with measures of central tendency often serves to conceal
important variations and relationships. On the other hand,
mere elaborateness may tend to conceal important major
relationships in a maze of detail.

9. Interpretation of observations and of analytical find-
ings. The eight criteria already presented apply to the
formulation of the problem, the experimental procedure, and
the treatment of data. The next in the sequence is the
criterion of interpretation. Valid interpretation is dependent
on (a) the recognition of assumptions and of limitations in
the experimental technique and statistical procedure, (b) the
logic involved in drawing conclusions, (c) the recognition
of significant variables, (d) the recognition of inconclusive
or inconsistent data, and (e) the completeness with which
conclusions are drawn.

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 317

Positive contributions. The final consideration the posi-
tive contributions of the investigation is the logical sequence
to the application of the criteria enumerated above. The
positive contribution, in itself, is not a criterion, but an out-
come of the rigorous application of the criteria to the investi-
gation. It constitutes a statement of the findings of the study
in the light of all the influencing factors.

An analysis of these criteria will reveal a serial organiza-
tion culminating in a statement of conclusions accepted after
the application of the criteria. This serial organization begins
with a consideration of the problem, proceeds in order
through the assumptions, the experimental procedure, the
treatment of the data, the interpretation of the data, and
concludes with the positive contributions of the investigation.
Each criterion develops from those preceding in the order
followed in actual experimental investigation; and climaxing
the series of criteria is the final evaluation of the contribu-
tions of the experiment.

Taken as a whole, the criteria are of such a nature and
such an organization that they yield a critical picture of any
study in the field of experimental education, and an appraisal
of its contribution to experimental procedure and to educa-
tional theory and practice. Failure of a research study to
meet any one criterion alters its value in relation to all follow-
ing criteria.

II. NEGLECTED FACTORS IN EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

As the various studies were examined, and as the criteria
were applied, it became apparent that the worth of the in-
vestigations was limited because of questionable assumptions
implicit in the investigations and frequently not at all recog-
nized. An analysis of the experiments reported revealed that
these assumptions revolved around certain experimental
factors.

318 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Seven neglected factors of experimental procedure were
isolated in the sixty-one studies: (1) Typicalness of class-
room procedures, (2) Comparability of methods of instruc-
tion, (3) Methods of measuring results of instruction, (4)
Limitations of the control group technique, (5) Insufficient
analysis of data, (6) Diversity of grade classification, and
(7) Incomplete investigation of problems.

1. Typicalness of classroom procedure. One of the most
important of the neglected factors is the typicalness of the
classroom procedure, or methods of teaching, which ex-
perimenters set up for experimental comparison. Many of
the investigations are of limited value either to educational
theory or to educational practice (or both) on this account.
They are devoted to the study of effectiveness of methods
long since abandoned or never extensively practiced in
American education.

Preliminary to a detailed discussion of this factor, one
point should be made. It is recognized that there is value
in determining the psychological reaction of pupils to any
method of instruction an investigator wishes to use, whether
that instructional method possesses real or potential value
for classroom use. However, relatively few of these studies
are devoted to the determination of psychological reactions
as such. The majority are concerned with the effectiveness
of method in classroom instruction.

Typicalness of classroom procedure will be considered
from three points of view: (a) methods employed in teach-
ing, (b) integration of these methods with normal instruc-
tion, and (c) length of the instructional period.

(a) Methods of teaching. In many experiments, the
methods of instruction are atypical. In one, for instance, the
material of a motion-picture film was translated into a lecture
which was delivered in an auditorium to seventh-grade pupils.
The lecture method is seldom, if ever, used to teach seventh-
grade geography.

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 319

A second example of the atypical instruction adopted in
experimental investigations is found in another, in which
pupils in the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth grades were given
mimeographed reports of the material shown in several films.
Teachers were not permitted to use any visual aids in this
type of instruction. Normally, textbooks in the elementary
school are profusely illustrated, blackboards are abundantly
used, projects are developed, and other visual aids are
furnished the pupils in one form or another.

These examples are sufficient to illustrate the point that
experimenters often neglect to establish normal schoolroom
teaching procedure in their investigations. As a result of
this neglect the values of their data are considerably lessened,
even if they are able to demonstrate certain values for par-
ticular experimental methods.

(b) Integration of teaching methods. A second
neglected aspect of classroom instruction is the integration
of the experimental method of teaching with other class-
room methods and activities. In many investigations one
particular method of instruction has been compared with
another in isolation. For instance, one investigator studied
the comparative effectiveness of the "regular" textbook-
recitation method and the film method of instruction. This
type of contrast presupposes a regimentation of instruction
such that pupils study a textbook and are quizzed by the
teacher, on the one hand, or are shown motion pictures
without any recitation and quizzing on the other hand. In
other words, the film and the textbook-recitation methods of
teaching are used without deviation or supplementation
throughout the entire period of instruction in the particular
subject which the pupils are studying.

In a second study, too, motion pictures on various health
topics were presented to one group of students, and lectures
based on the films were presented to the other. Results of
each type of presentation were measured. Each type of

320 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

instruction was considered as the instructional method, and
not merely as one of many teaching devices to be used
regularly and coincidently in the classroom in teaching these
topics.

Visual aids, in these cases and in many others cited in the
appendix of this study, were considered as methods of in-
struction, and not as aids to be used as a part of a more
diverse and complex organization of instructional procedure.

Failure to integrate one particular teaching device with
the many other teaching devices normally used in the class-
room has materially diminished the worth of many experi-
mental studies on the values and uses of visual aids.

(c) Length of the instruction period. The third respect
in which the typicalness of classroom procedure is violated
is in the length of the instructional period of the experiment.
The period of instruction in experimental investigations was
in one case as brief as four minutes. In this instance the
effectiveness of motion pictures in relation to age and grade
level was studied.

In many other investigations the instructional period was
relatively brief. One study was made in which instructional
periods of only fourteen minutes were employed. (This
period was determined by the time required for the projection
of one film.) Since class periods are normally much longer
than fourteen minutes, and are distributed over a period of
several months during the school year, results of fourteen
minutes of instruction can have relatively few implications
for general classroom procedure.

The practice of using such short experimental periods
has important bearing, too, upon the adequacy and reliability
of the data which result from different methods of instruc-
tion. Evidence of special effectiveness which actually inheres
in some particular method may be expected to increase in
amount as the period of instruction is lengthened. A slight,

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 321

almost negligible difference between instructional methods,
statistically unreliable and perhaps inconsistent in various
short experiments, might increase the significant proportions
when used over a longer instructional period, and in relation
to particular types of learning outcomes. When this exten-
sion of instructional period is not provided, there is no way
of determining the extent and permanence of differences
accruing to various methods or devices of instruction.

While these three aspects of typicalness in classroom
procedure have been neglected in many experimental studies,
there are, on the other hand, experimental investigations in
which they have been respected for their real importance.
For instance, Wood and Freeman (59) supplemented well-
organized teaching with films in the case of experimental
groups, and provided for the use of other visual aids in all
groups. Furthermore, the visual aids were used as only one
part of the teaching procedure. Experiments were conducted
in two fields of instruction geography and general science
and were extended over a period of three months. In this
way, the methods of teaching were typical, and the visual
aids were considered as an integral part of normal classroom
instruction. The Arnspiger (2), the Clark (5), the Knowl-
ton and Tilton (31), and the Rulon (48) experiments are
other examples in which the factor of normal classroom
procedure has been properly provided.

(2) Comparability of methods of instruction. A second
important factor of experimental procedure which has been
widely neglected in investigations in the field of visual aids
is that of comparability of methods of instruction. Compari-
sons of visual aids and other methods of instruction have
been made in which the internal organization of the mate-
rials of instruction has not been the same. In other words,
comparisons have been made between "structured" and rela-
tively "unstructured" learning materials.

322 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Motion-picture film is highly structured. One element of
its structure is the organization of the material in definite
sequence. A motion picture must be projected in essentially
the same organization with which it has been finally produced.
Attempts to reorganize the film-material classroom projection
are made difficult by the necessity of rewinding, and so on,
or by the technical skill required to cut and reassemble a film.

A second element of structure in the motion picture is
the arrangement of verbal and pictorial material, or captions
and scenes. Verbal explanation may come before, during,
or after the illustrative material, or in any combination of
these three arrangements, but this organization is identical
every time the film is projected and in every situation. It
does not vary with the teacher, the pupils, the time of day,
or the subject matter of instruction.

On the other hand, the structure of other teaching mate-
rials is highly flexible. The organization of material in
various textbooks differs with the particular texts. The
organization of supplementary visual aids, other than films,
varies with the teacher who uses them. The organization of
all the instructional material, even with the provision of a
syllabus or outlines of study, varies with the particular
teacher, the particular class, and the particular books and
other study material available.

Even when the organizational structure of subject matter
is the same for a film and a textbook, study outline, and
so on, the identical objective structure may in itself be
psychologically different to the pupils. In the film the mate-
rial is pictorial and verbal, whereas in the textbook or study
outline, the material is verbal. In the film, this organization
may be psychologically appropriate at one particular level of
mental development, while in purely verbal learning material
the identical organization may be psychologically inappro-
priate.

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 323

Too little attention has been given in experimental pro-
cedure to the factor of structure in comparative methods of
instruction. Freeman noted this factor in his discussion of
James's experiment (29) :

It is evident . . . that the primary aim in the mind of the experi-
menter [James] was to secure identity in form and in content between
the motion picture film and the oral lecture. This identity was secured
by copying and reproducing orally the titles and subtitles and then
supplementing these by a few additional sentences. The film, in other
words, formed the basis of the organization of the lectures. This pro-
cedure differed from that which is followed by McClusky in his experi-
ment. McClusky endeavored, to be sure, to cover the same topics and
include the same facts in the oral presentation, or the oral presentation
accompanied by charts, as was included in the film, but he did not
attempt to follow in this detailed manner the form of presentation in
the film. 4

Of the more recent experiments, that of Arnspiger (2)
may be cited as an example of structural differences in learn-
ing material. In this investigation the teachers of the control
group were furnished with syllabi of the material, including
bibliographical references, while those of the experimental
group were furnished these syllabi and motion-picture films.
Whereas the teachers of the control groups were free to use
any instructional device available except motion pictures, this
teaching was not uniform, was unorganized, and highly
diversified. On the other hand, the use of moving pictures
in the experimental group was uniform and organized, and
the films were highly structured.

This matter of structure may constitute one of the
inherent advantages of the motion picture. On the other
hand, it may constitute one of its inherent disadvantages.

In either case, the matter of structure of learning material
has generally been ignored in comparing effectiveness of
various methods of instruction.

(3) Methods of measuring results of instruction. Since
the effectiveness of various instructional methods is deter-

4 Frank N. Freeman. Visual Education. University of Chicago Press. 1924.
p. 28-9.

324 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

mined largely on the basis of tests of one sort or another,
great significance is to be attached to the methods of measur-
ing results of instruction. Despite the importance of meas-
urement in relation to the data to which interpretation is
given, several important aspects of measurement have been
neglected by experimenters. These aspects will be discussed
as (a) measurement of pupil responses, (b) objectives of
instruction, (c) type of learning, (d) experiential judgment,
(e) learning during the experimental period.

(a) Measurement of pupil responses. In striving for
objectivity of measurement, most experimenters have over-
looked the possibility that objective tests, as they are con-
structed, may not measure pupil responses as such, or if they
do, that measurement may be inaccurate or misrepresentative.
In constructing an objective test, a set of items is developed
which represents the response that an experienced teacher,
a highly trained experimenter, or a scholar in the subject-
matter field thinks a child should make as a result of seeing
a motion-picture film or a set of slides, or of reading a
textbook, or of hearing a lecture, or of any combination of
these activities. The mental development, the previous ex-
perience, the point of view, and several other factors com-
bined in the total personality of the testmaker are uncon-
sciously reflected in a test so constructed.

At best, the test thus made measures, to some extent,
the degree to which pupil responses coincide with adult re-
sponses, or zvith what adults think pupil responses should be.
There is no certainty, however, that the test measures the
responses of the child to the experimental situation.

On the other hand, essay-type tests are more representa-
tive of the verbal responses that children, themselves, make
tinder certain conditions. In relatively few experiments was
use made of the essay examination. Wood and Freeman
(59) used it extensively, McClusky (34) used it sparingly,
and Consitt (7) and Marchant (37) used it exclusively.

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 325

Even the essay-type test does not measure pupil responses
extensively. To a large extent, responses are directed by
the nature of the questions. They may, on the one hand,
measure recall, organization, language facility, or particular
and general ideas arising from the experimental experience.
On the other hand, more elementary learning reactions are
not always apparent on the essay-type examination. For
instance, a child's feeling of familiarity, his readinesses for
new and different reactions, are not always recorded in his
written essay.

While the difficulty of measurement is herein recognized,
the point developed concerning methods of measuring pupil
responses used in experimental investigations on the values
of films, is that adult-made objective and essay-type tests are
not infallible indices to pupil responses in learning situations.

(b) The objectives of instruction. Another phase of
measurement which has been widely neglected is that of
measurement in terms of the objectives of instruction. If an
individual were to confine his reading to these experimental
studies and to ignore other publications on American educa-
tion, he would develop a warped set of educational objectives.
The great majority of experiments are devoted to the values
of films for imparting factual knowledge. A few experi-
menters, notably F. D. and H. Y. McClusky (36) ; Freeman,
Shaw, and Walker (16); Freeman and Hoefer (14); Rolfe
(46); and Hollis (25) sought to measure effectiveness in
terms of ability to do. Knowlton and Tilton (31) measured
interest in reading, in class recitation, and the like, and Clark
(5) attempted to secure measures of the development or
change of interests as a result of instruction. On the whole,
however, the experimenters were concerned with fact getting
in a limited field of subject matter.

Some few experimenters devoted considerable time and
effort to the development of objectives in instruction, and
then proceeded to ignore all objectives except factual knowl-

326 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

edge in measuring results of instruction. A specific illustra-
tion of this procedure is found in one report. A unit of
instruction in this study was devoted to lower animals.
Objectives of instruction similar to those listed below were
furnished teachers of both experimental and control groups :

1. A desire to protect small animals.

2. Ability to distinguish between types of small animals.

3. A fearless attitude toward the small animals.

4. Knowledge that small animals are of great value to the
farmer.

5. An understanding of the life cycle of small animals.

6. Concomitants of accurate observation, joy in discovery,
and kindness towards harmless, helpless animals.

7. A deeper interest in the study of nature.

Despite the development of the above objectives of in-
struction, the test questions were devised to measure the sub-
ject matter of the units. There was no attempt made, in
this study, to measure concomitant learnings, attitudes, or
appreciations, except as they are reflected in the learning of
factual material. If these ' 'concomitants" had been more
adequately measured it is quite probable that the differences
in favor of the experimental groups would have been even
greater.

It appears that most investigators, whatsoever their theo-
retical notions, view education practically, or experimentally
at least, as the process by which factual knowledge is
acquired.

(c) Type of learning. A third aspect of measurement
which has escaped the attention it deserves is the type of
learning visual, verbal, and so on resulting or expected to
result from the use of visual aids. With the exception of
the instances cited in the previous discussion of objectives of
instruction (in regard to measurement of ability to do),
almost all experimenters have measured the results of instruc-
tion on the verbal level.

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 327

The use of pictorial material does not necessarily develop
verbal experience. It may, to some or to a great extent,
make this verbalization meaningful, but the measurement of
verbal learning is not necessarily a measure of the learning
which accrues to the pupils given pictorial experience unless
verbal instruction has preceded, accompanied, or followed
this pictorial experience.

Many types of learning may be expected to result from
the use of visual aids. There may be the mere feeling of
familiarity with a certain object, process, or situation. There
may be identification of that object, process, or situation, in
relation to other objects, processes, or situations. There
may be generalization on the verbal level in relation to these
experiences. There may be application or ability to perform
some new or more complex act. There may be a better con-
cept of relationships, a greater clarity of concepts, new
insights, new appreciations, and so on. Any or all of these
may develop as a result of the use of visual aids in instruc-
tion.

Yet, in measurement of results, verbal tests are most
widely used. Of these, the vast majority are objective items
on specific elements of a motion picture, a slide, a diagram,
a textbook, or a lecture. Wood and Freeman (59) attempted
to obtain measures not only on specific items of information,
but also on generalizations which the pupils had formed as
a result of instruction. They also used drawings to measure
pupil experience. Rulon (48) developed a unique "picture"
test in which interpretation of pictorially portrayed situations
was required in order to answer the questions of the test.

In general, however, measurement of instruction was on
the verbal level and was confined, as indicated in the previous
discussion, to factual information.

(d) Experiential judgment. Another important ne-
glected aspect of measurement is the judgment of competent

328 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

judges. Some strange phobia seems to have become attached
to the word "subjectivity" or "subjective judgment." The
onset of the so-called "scientific movement" in American
education has apparently been accompanied by a developing
fear of unreliability of teachers' judgments, and an austere
reverence for "objective" measurement. All this, despite
the fact that the standard of validity of many objective
measures is, in the end, the judgment of teachers, observers,
and other erring humans.

As a result of this reverence for objectivity and disdain
of subjective opinions, the judgments of pupils, the judg-
ments of teachers, and the judgments of experimenters,
arrived at through a long series of observations in many
and varied situations and under many and varied conditions,
have been widely disregarded in investigations of the values
of visual aids.

A few notable exceptions have been made to this rule.
There is a high degree of consistency among the judgments
secured by a few experimenters in widely different geo-
graphical areas. The judgments secured from sixty-eight
sources by Knowlton and Tilton (31), from the experimental
teachers by Wood and Freeman (59), and from English
teachers by Consitt (7), are in remarkable agreement. In
each case the judgments were arrived at with apparent inde-
pendence, and as a result of either the viewing or the use in
the classroom of the films in these investigations. Teachers'
judgments seem to be consistent, opinion to the contrary not-
withstanding.

Despite the prejudice against teachers' judgments, they
are, nevertheless, a valuable source of information. They
are formed on the background of wide experience, in com-
parison to other existing conditions, and on the basis of
exhaustive sampling of reactions over a long period of time.
It is unfortunate, too, that the opinion of pupils, as well as

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 329

of teachers, have been ignored. Had this condition not
obtained, many fruitless investigations, many grubbing hours
of test making and scoring, and many painful mathematical
calculations might have been spared.

(e) Learning during the experimental period. Finally,
as a neglected aspect in the measurement of instructional
results is the consideration of learning during the experi-
mental period. Too many investigations have been made on
the assumption that measures derived at the end of the experi-
mental period actually are measures of learning during that
period. One experimenter, for instance, taught various units
in industrial arts by three different methods. He assumed
that the data from the tests represented learning during the
experimental period, despite the fact that no initial tests were
given. In another study where no initial tests were given
before the experimental period, results in various centers in
which the experiments were performed varied widely. As a
result of this inconsistency it is impossible to determine
whether the differences were due to previous knowledge of
the subject, or variations in the technique of teaching, or both.

In more recent experiments, this aspect has not been so
generally neglected. Arnspiger (2), for instance, used initial
tests and so constructed his final tests that they would repre-
sent learning during the experimental period. Wood and
Freeman (59) also used initial tests and treated results in
terms of gains during the experimental period. Rulon (48)
took elaborate precautions to control factors during the
experimental period.

An important aspect of the amount of knowledge obtain-
ing before the experimental period is pointed out by Mount
(41). Where a large amount of initial knowledge is present,
the opportunity for gain in knowledge is diminished, and the
treatment of data in terms of gains obtained may not be a
true index to the effectiveness of instructional method.

330 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

(4) Limitations of the control group technique. 5 The
technique most generally used (in the experimental studies of
visual aids) has been that of control groups. The use of
this technique involves an activity of one type on the part
of one group, and an activity of another type on the part
of the other. The purpose of this technique is to control all
variable factors except the one being measured, but while
this activity is occupying the experimental group another
activity is being indulged in by the control group.

Yet, in the measurement of results of instruction, little
attempt, if any, is made to measure equally well the mental
activities of both experimental and control groups. For
instance, while the experimental group is viewing a motion
picture, the control group is watching slides, reading text-
books, listening to oral presentations, etc. The activities of
the two groups are different. In the one group a certain
type of mental outcome may be developing, in the other,
another type. This possibility, however, is not adequately
considered in measuring results.

One example of failure to measure the activity of both
the experimental and control groups is furnished in a
report on the effect of moving-picture titles as study guides
following film presentation. Mimeographed copies of the
film titles were furnished to the experimental group. The
control group received no such study guides. Both groups
then engaged in a short period of study with the textbooks
and reference books available on the material illustrated by
the film. At the end of this study period, tests were given
both the experimental and control groups. These tests con-
sisted of almost the exact film titles furnished to the experi-
mental group above. A comparison of the film titles with the
test items brought out the fact that no item was given that

5 For a more detailed criticism of the control group technique in experimental
education see W. A. Brownell. "Some Neglected Safeguards in Control-Group
Experimentation." Journal of Educational Research. 27:98-107

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 331

was not an almost exact excerpt from the film titles and that
almost all film titles were covered in the test items.

Such is one criticism of the control-group technique.
Recent investigations by Rulon (48), Gatto (17), and Arn-
spiger (2), indicate that wherein the activity of the control
group is measured, the control group is superior to the
experimental group on those activities in which the former
were engaged. Nevertheless, the measurement of the activi-
ties of both groups equally well has been neglected in most
experimental studies in visual education.

Another criticism of this technique concerns experi-
menters' notions of equivalence. While a number of vari-
ations are found in methods of equating "equivalent" groups,
the factors upon which equivalence is based are generally
age, grade level, sex, and measures of central tendency and
dispersion on tests of "intelligence" and knowledge of some
particular subject matter upon which instruction is to be
given. Occasionally, individual pupils from two "equated"
groups are paired on the basis of these factors, but the
general procedure is to equate merely the groups. After this
"equation" has been completed, "identical" methods of in-
struction are used with the "equivalent" groups, with the
exception of the variable factor of instruction.

Despite these procedures of "equation," experiment after
experiment showed that one method of instruction is superior
in one group, and another method is superior in the other
group, both groups being "equivalent." The obvious con-
clusion is that equivalence has not obtained, and that, further-
more, equivalence of groups in all factors is almost impossible.

(5) Insufficient analysis of data. Another major factor
neglected in experimentation in visual aids is depth of analy-
sis of data. Experimenters are so engrossed in the abstract
problems they have formulated for study that they neglect
to determine the factors of a motion-picture film, a slide, or

332 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

a demonstration that make it particularly effective in relation
to a particular type of response.

Two analytical studies of pupil responses were made.
The one is H. C. Davis's analysis (7) of data secured on
the essay topical tests of the Wood and Freeman study (59),
and the other is Terry's analysis (54) of children's responses
to the Yale Chronicles of America photoplays. These latter
were obtained from the stenographic report of classroom
activity secured by Knowlton and Tilton (31) and of re-
sponses of children on a check experiment in which a his-
torical photoplay produced by the Eastman Company was
presented.

In general, analysis of data consists in the statistical com-
putation of measures of central tendency or dispersion
(medians, means, standard deviations, quartile deviations),
differences of means or medians for comparative methods of
instruction, and the reliability of these differences. (Gener-
ally, the statistical formulation for reliability of differences of
equated groups is neglected the formula (J^.^-Vcf^To"^
is used for determining the standard deviation of differen-
ces.)

Occasionally, as in the case of McClusky's report (34),
these data are presented for all experiments in the various
cities in which they were performed. Analysis, however,
generally ceases at this point. Factors inherent in the vari-
ous visual aids are neglected, incorrect responses are not
recorded, responses to various types of items such as ex-
planation, reasoning, and the like, are not classified. Relative
effectiveness on various levels of mental ability is overlooked
in many investigations. So, too, are the responses of pupils
during the regular classroom procedure. Such studies as
those by Davis and by Terry are very greatly needed to
throw light on the real problems of instructional methods.
These analyses must be intensive, and as such will neces-
sarily be limited to a relatively small area of investigation.

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 333

(6) Diversity of grade classification. A sixth neg-
lected factor of experimental procedure is grade classifica-
tion. In several experiments pupils from several grades have
been instructed in the same material by the same methods.
R. L. Davis (10), for instance, used pupils from the third
to the eighth grades in his study. In this particular case,
differentiated responses of pupils within this grade distri-
bution was one of the factors investigated. In another study,
however, the film material was presented to pupils in the
third, fourth, fifth, and sixth grades by three different
methods without regard for the adaptation of the material
to these levels.

A consideration of the psychological aspects of visual
education leads to the theory that different methods of teach-
ing are effective with different levels of mental development.
The neglect of this factor of mental development in the use
of pupils of various age and grade levels will tend to influence
results from the various grade levels taken as a whole.

Wood and Freeman (59) found that the films used in
their study were not as effective as other methods of instruc-
tion in teaching some aspects of general science in the fourth
and fifth grades. It is possible that the use of these films
was not appropriate for this grade level, whereas for a higher
grade its use is appropriate. In the study of geography on
higher grade levels, Wood and Freeman found that the use
of films was effective. These illustrations lead to the next
and last of the neglected factors of experimental procedure.

(7) Incomplete investigation of problems. It is un-
fortunately true that many investigations stop where signifi-
cant investigation should begin. This fact is illustrated by
the instance cited in relation to the effectiveness of films in
one subject on one grade level, and the effectiveness of films
in another subject on another grade level. The problem
raised by the results of Wood and Freeman's investigation

334 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

(59) is: Why are films effective aids in instruction in one
subject on one grade level and less effective in another sub-
ject on another grade level?

Similarly, the results of Mead's (39) and other investiga-
tions raise the question : Why were results with the same
method inconsistent in different situations?

Such are the real problems of research in visual educa-
tion, yet to date they have been ignored. Until they receive
experimental attention major problems remain unanswered.

III. REVIEW OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA

The preceding section is concerned with the criteria for
evaluating the effectiveness of films in the classroom, and
neglected factors of experimental procedure were discussed.
It is the purpose of this section to present and summarize
the results of the separate investigations in the particular
aspects of effectiveness with which the experimenters were
concerned. No attempt is made to discuss the results of all
the investigations reported.

The values of the films, as determined by the application
of the criteria to the sixty-one investigations evaluated in
this study, are classified according to eight major aspects:
(1) Types of pupil responses to films, (2) Elimination of
wrong responses, (3) Effectiveness of films with "dull" and
"bright" pupils, (4) Effectiveness of films on various grade
levels, (5) The film and economy of time in instruction,
(6) Effectiveness of verbal commentary on film presenta-
tion, (7) Frequency and distribution of projection, and (8)
Auditorium and classroom projection of films.

(1) Types of pupil responses to films. "Types of pupil
responses" have been divided into nine classifications on the
basis of various aspects of learning and other pupil activity
investigated in the studies. These classifications are: (a)
learning factual information, (b) retention of material

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 335

learned, (c) habits, skills, and so on, (d) development of
understanding of relationships, (e) description, explanation,
and the like, (f) "thinking" and "eduction," (g) imagina-
tion, (h) development of interest, (i) responses to elements
of films, and (j) responses on non-film items.

(a) Learning factual information. The great majority
of investigations on the values of films in the classroom have
been conducted with respect to the learning of factual mate-
rial. These experiments have covered a wide range of school
subjects, grade levels, and comparisons with other methods
of instruction.

The value of the film for this purpose is summed up by
Wood and Freeman (59) in the statement that the film
"gives the child clear-cut notions of the objects and actions
in the world about him" (p. 221). Results in agreement
with this conclusion are found in the experiments of Arn-
spiger (2), Consitt (7), Knowlton and Tilton (31), Mar-
chant (37), Watkins (55), Weber (56), and others. In
most of these studies the film was used as an integral part of
the instructional procedure and in comparison with other
methods of instruction. The percentage of increase in factual
knowledge varied considerably among the studies.

In other studies, the value of the film has been contrasted
with purely oral instruction and measurement in terms of
the film material. Limitations of these studies, however,
make results inconclusive.

Mount (41) contrasted the relative effect of the use of
the film and the use of supplementary reading in high-school
physics. Both these teaching aids were used in addition to
other visual aids. He found the greater gain of the film
group to be very small in comparison to the average gain
made by either the control or the supplementary-reading
groups. Measurement was made by means of modified
standard tests. Results in general agreement with those

336 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

reported by Mount were found by Cameron (4) as pertaining
to the lecture-discussion method in contrast to the film
method.

In contrasting the use of the film with that of the film
slide, Brown (3) found the film-slide presentation, with its
greater opportunity for exchange of comment between teacher
and pupils, superior to the film presentation. This result may
have been due in a large measure to the method of film
presentation. Verbal accompaniment, as used by Brown,
would tend to interrupt and interfere with the film, rather
than to explain its important parts.

Freeman, Reeder, and Thomas (15) concluded that in
presenting tables, maps, and charts the film is no better than
the actual tables, maps, and charts presented as such.

H. C. Davis (9), in her analysis of the results of certain
topical tests used in the Wood and Freeman study (59),
found visual aids other than the film to be more effective
than the film presenting factual information about objects.

Gatto (17) measured the comparative effects of films and
supplementary reading as an integral part of instruction. He
found that the supplementary reading group was slightly
higher on a standardized test of comprehension ability in
geography than was the film group, but that on the tests of
factual information of the instructional material the film
groups were superior.

In conclusion, it may be said that the film is superior to
verbal methods of presenting concrete material, but that its
superiority to other visual aids varies with the type of mate-
rial and the type of learning expected.

(b) Retention of material learned. Investigations of
the effectiveness of the films as measured by permanence of
learning have been conducted by Arnspiger (2), Gatto (17),
Hansen (20), Knowlton and Tilton (31), Lacy (32),
McClusky (34), Rulon (48), Skinner and Rich (50), Sum-
stine (53), Weber (56), and Young (61). Permanence

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 337

of learning was measured by administering delayed tests
from one week to three and one-half months after the
period of instruction on the experimental material. In gen-
eral, these tests measured factual material on the verbal
level.

The experimental procedures of many of these investiga-
tions were of such nature that the results cannot be accepted
as adequate or reliable. Lacy, for example, presented the
learning material fragmentarily and tested results on the
basis of incidental details which Terry (54) has since shown
escape attention of pupils when presented in films. There
is, however, a high consistency of data among these studies
to indicate that the use of the film in instruction is superior
to the use of verbal material alone or to the unorganized
use of other visual aids, when retention is measured by
delayed tests of the type mentioned above. There is also
general agreement among the data of these investigations that
the percentage of superiority of retention is higher than the
percentage of superiority of immediate learning, when super-
iority is considered in terms of the test results for the non-
film groups.

The results of the investigations by Gatto and Rulon
are particularly significant. Gatto found that the mean score
of the film group increased 11 per cent on the delayed test
administered five weeks after the instructional period, but
the mean score of the nonfilm group decreased 11 per cent
in relation to scores on the immediate tests. Gatto, and
almost all other experimenters, measured retention by the
use of tests which the pupils had taken on some previous
occasion during the experimental period either as a pretest
or as a test of immediate learning at the end of the instruc-
tional period.

Rulon, however, secured results by a method which elim-
inated the element of practice effect on the tests. To secure
measures of immediate learning, Rulon administered a

338 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

pictorial-verbal test to one half of the pupils and a purely
verbal test to the other half. On the measurement of reten-
tion the order of the two tests was reversed. He found, as
did the other experimenters, that the superiority of the scores
of the film group over the nonfilm group was higher than
the corresponding superiority in immediate learning.
Furthermore, Rulon's tests were designed to measure "think-
ing" ability as well as a mere knowledge of facts. With
practice effects eliminated in the manner described, his results
are in harmony with those secured on test scores to which a
practice effect might have accrued.

It may be said, in summary, that the use of films as an
integral part of classroom instruction produces more per-
manent learning of factual information and more permanent
mental reactions of a "thought" variety than do methods of
instruction in which nonvisual material is predominantly
used, or in which there is unorganized use of other visual
aids. This statement does not apply to any type of mental
activity beyond that measured by pictorial-verbal and purely
verbal tests of the objective type. Unfortunately, no experi-
mental work has been reported on permanence of other types
of learning.

(c) Habits, skills, and the like. While a large number
of investigations have been made on the influence of the film
with respect to learning of one type or another, relatively
few studies have been made on the influence of the film on
learning to perform acts of skill required in certain school
subjects, or on personal habits which function outside the
school. 6 Freeman, Shaw, and Walker (16), Hollis (25),
F. D. and H. Y. McClusky (36), and Rolfe (46) investigated

6 A number of studies on the social influence of the motion picture have
recently been made under a grant from the Payne F9undation. These studies
are ably summarized by W. W. Charters in his Motion Pictures and Youth,
New York. Macmillan Company, 1933. They are not treated here because this
discussion is limited exclusively to the instructional film. However, every educator
should read Charters' summary for the development of insight into the potentialities
that the motion picture holds for education and its rapidly enlarging goals.

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 339

the effectiveness of the film in teaching skills required in
school subjects. Freeman and Hoefer (14) and Hoefer and
Keith (24) made studies on the influence of the film on
health habits in the everyday life of the pupils.

The results of the studies by Hollis, the McCluskys, and
Rolfe are in agreement that the demonstration is a method
of instruction superior to the use of the film in teaching
manipulatory skills in domestic science, in high-school physics
laboratory exercises, and in industrial arts. In all three of
these experiments, oral instruction was given before the
pupils were required to perform their tasks, but no instruction
was given while the children were engaged in working out
their projects. The test made of instructional methods was
the relative worth of the pupils' completed work as judged
by certain established criteria.

Despite the fact that no oral instruction accompanied any
of the visual methods used in these experiments, the worth
of demonstration seems to be inherent in its reality; i.e., the
actual task is performed before the pupils in all dimensions
of objective reality. On the other hand, the film is an
impersonal presentation in only two spatial dimensions, and
as such furnishes an experience less concrete than is the
demonstration. Mere verbal instruction in manipulatory
skills is even farther removed from psychological reality.
It involves language instruction in a complex tactual per-
formance in which the pupils have had little if any previous
experience.

On the other hand, Freeman, Shaw, and Walker found
that in teaching position in handwriting, the use of a motion
picture, shown three times during the course of regular class-
room instruction, was a more effective method than the
procedure ordinarily followed in the classroom, or this pro-
cedure plus frequent reports to pupils of their scores on
handwriting position. On actual improvement in quality of

340 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

handwriting, however, none of the three methods of in-
struction was apparently superior to the others.

In this experiment, the value of the film seems to be the
clear visual demonstration it gave to all pupils with respect
to good and bad positions. In the ordinary class instruction,
followed in all groups throughout the experiment, the teacher
merely corrected the pupils individually no special demon-
stration of good and bad positions was made for the benefit
of all pupils. The failure of the film as a particularly effec-
tive means of improvement in the quality of handwriting may
be due to (1) the emphasis given to position as a means
to an end and the ignoring of the end itself, (2) the fact
that measurement was made over a three-week period during
which measurable improvement in quality of handwriting
may not reasonably be expected, or (3) a combination of
these two factors. Furthermore, the measurable factors of
position in handwriting may not be as complex as those
required in the performance of domestic science, industrial
arts, and laboratory experiments in high-school physics.
Hence, the actual demonstration may not be necessary.

Two studies were concerned with effectiveness of films
as compared with other visual aids and oral instruction for
inculcating desirable habits of diet and care of the teeth.
Neither study (that by Hoefer and Keith, and that by Free-
man and Hoefer) disclosed any superiority adhering to the
use of the film. This fact may be explained by a considera-
tion of the eminent possibility that pupils had relatively little
control over the factors that were measured, i.e., diet, dental
treatment, and the like.

Ruff a (47) reported that a film especially prepared for
specific purposes provided an excellent medium for teaching
elements of track sports.

From these few experiments the tentative conclusions mav
be drawn that the demonstration method of instruction is

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 341

superior to the film and other visual aids in teaching certain
complex manipulatory skills required in some of the school
subjects. As a method of teaching less complex skills of
bodily position the film was found to be effective, but its
value in comparison with objective demonstration of a
similar nature was not determined. Conclusions regarding
the effectiveness of the film in inciting "proper" health habits
must be held in abeyance, largely because of the lack of
control of pupils over those conditions which make such
habits possible. It must be remembered, however, that these
conclusions are based on the use of films now outmoded and
that since these data were gathered, greatly improved films
have been made available for teaching skills.

(d) Development of relationships. Knowlton and Til-
ton (31) found that historical photoplays tended to inter-
fere with the development of a pupil sense of time relation-
ships, and that groups who saw no films were superior to
film groups on verbal tests designed to measure this relation-
ship. On the other hand, the authors found the photoplays
to be most effective in teaching a knowledge of interrela-
tionships involving the interaction of events and forces.

(e) Description, explanation, and the like. Wood and
Freeman (59) interpreted the results of their essay-type
"topical" tests as indicative of the value of the film in
developing descriptive ability, as this ability was measured
by the tests. On essay-type questions which are even more
abstract than those involving description, namely, explana-
tion and comparison, the authors note that the film and
nonfilm groups were approximately equal. The Wood and
Freeman investigation, however, was attended by many limi-
tations. Woodburn (60) reported a small but positive gain
through the use of films in teaching knowledge of relation-
ships, size, and shape in ninth-grade general science.

342 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

(f) "Thinking" and "eduction." Clark (5) measured
the relative effectiveness of sound and silent pictures on the
first-year college level in the development of "ability to
think." He found, in so far as short essay tests measured
this ability, that the two methods of film presentation were
equally effective.

Rulon (48) classified some of his test items under the
general head of "eduction." By "eduction" items he meant
those which called for more than a mere recall of facts.
He was particularly interested in the types of mental activity
involving perception of relationship or application of some
general principle. In other words, his "eduction" items re-
quired intelligent thinking from factual knowledge or general-
izations. He found that, in so far as his tests measured
"eduction," the film groups were superior to those which
had studied only textbook material, and that these groups
were relatively superior on "eduction" than on purely factual
items.

(g) Imagination. Consitt (7) reported, on the basis
of pupil and teacher opinion, that the use of films in teaching
history stimulated the imagination of children. "The chil-
dren realize the past, gain more sympathetic insight into the
lives and feelings of the men and women of the past, and
get a fuller and clearer picture of the environment; thus,
they can the better imaginatively reconstruct for themselves
other scenes of the same period as those seen on the films"
(p. 378). In support of this contention she reproduces
scenarios written by girls who had viewed historical pictures
in the experiments. She also cites reports of children's
evaluations in which the children describe films as "clearer,"
giving "more details," and so on.

While the experimental evidence is inconclusive, yet it is
in agreement with common experience. However, purely
verbal presentation and visual presentation by media other

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 343

than the film may also be expected to stimulate the imagina-
tion.

(h) Development of interest. Several investigations
have been concerned with the effect of motion pictures on
pupils' interests and activity in the classroom. There is
evidence from these studies that the film stimulates pupils
to great interest and activity in the subject of instruction
and in classroom participation.

Objective measures of some aspects of pupil interest de-
veloped through motion-picture presentation have been re-
ported by Clark (5), Freeman and Hoefer (14), Knowlton
and Tilton (31), Westfall (57), and Dash (8).

Knowlton and Tilton kept a record of the number of
recitations, voluntary and directed, and of the amount of
voluntary reading done by seventh-grade history pupils both
in class and outside of class. These investigators found
that the Yale Chronicles of America photoplays stimulated
classroom participation in recitation and discussion, and also
stimulated pupils to do voluntary reading in the classroom
to a far greater extent than did the use of ordinary class-
room methods. No increase in the amount of reading done
outside of class was found in the film group, however.

Freeman and Hoefer reported that in teaching, health
films stimulated children to bring in more clippings, pictures,
and the like, on the topics studied than did the unorganized
use of other visual aids. On the other hand, there was no
noticeable difference in the amount of voluntary reading
outside of class as between the film and nonfilm groups.

The apparent ineffectiveness of the film in stimulating a
greater degree of reading outside of class may have been
due to the lack of available reading material, the press of
other classwork, or the unreliability and inadequacy of the
pupil reports of this reading. Evidence secured from these
two experiments indicates that films are effective in develop-

344 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

ing classroom participation in discussion and recitation, in
stimulating interest in other visual and popular reading
material on the topic of the film, and in stimulating voluntary
reading of materials on the film topics available in the class-
room.

Corroborating evidence on the values of the film in the
development of interest and self-activity of pupils was se-
cured by Consitt (7) and by Wood and Freeman (59).
Their method was to summarize the judgments of teachers
who used films in teaching geography, general science, Latin,
and history. These judgments were obtained from teachers
in widely differing geographical areas, on different subject
matter of instruction, and under widely differing conditions
of teaching. They were remarkably consistent and in agree-
ment with the more objective measures secured by Knowlton
and Tilton and Freeman and Hoefer. This general con-
sistency indicates the reliability of teachers' subjective judg-
ments of values of teaching methods observed over a
considerable period of time, on a background of wide
experience, and on close observation of a wide variety of
pupil reactions.

In the judgment of the teachers in the British inquiry
conducted by Consitt, and in the elaborate experiment con-
ducted by Wood and Freeman, the use of films as an integral
part of classroom procedure arouses and maintains pupil
interest and increases the amount of voluntary reading and
class discussion. Unfortunately, neither of these studies
inquired into the effectiveness of other visual aids in stimu-
lating pupil interest and activity. The reports of the Wood
and Freeman study were confined to the film teachers. It is
entirely possible that had similar reports been secured from
the nonfilm teachers who made wide use of other visual aids,
similar values would have been reported.

The use of visual aids furnishes the primitive experience
necessary to meaningful generalization. The thrill of learn-

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 345

ing and the awakening interest in the subject arise from the
use of teaching methods which make meaningful learning a
psychological consequence of instruction.

The measurement of effectiveness of demonstration,
sound films, and silent films in developing interest and sus-
taining attention was attempted by Clark (5). For his
investigation he used questionnaires to compare the effec-
tiveness of these three methods of presenting science material
on the first-year college level. Attention was measured by
determining the number of students whose attention was
distracted from the films or demonstration by the ringing
of a bell. As far as the results of the questionnaires indi-
cated, no one of the three methods was superior to the other
two in developing and sustaining interest in the subject. In
the presence of a distracting auditory stimulus the attention
of fewer students was visually distracted at the sound film
presentation, more at the silent film, and the greatest number
in the case of the demonstration. The various combinations
of sound and light intensity during these methods of presen-
tation may account largely for the results.

To summarize the data from the various investigations:
there seems to be ample evidence that films are effective
in developing and sustaining interest and activity on the part
of the pupil in various school subjects on various grade levels.

(i) Responses to elements of films. Despite all the
experimentation in the use of films, little attention has been
given to the elementary features of films which produce the
responses observed in children. Moreover, there has been
little study of the specific responses made to these elements.
The suggestion has been advanced that the film element of
"action" is the one important film factor which is not dupli-
cated by other visual aids. While this may be true, the
value of "action" in the abstract is neither conclusively
proved nor specifically demonstrated.

346 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

The most elaborate in fact the only objective analysis
of pupil responses to elements of films was made by Terry
(54). She analyzed the types of children's responses to the
Yale Chronicles of America photoplays as recorded in the
stenographic report of the class proceedings in the Knowlton
and Tilton investigation (31). From this analysis Terry
found that "adolescent children show a decided preference
for historical personages" (p. 133). Sixty per cent of the
children's responses in class were classified as responses to
persons. Furthermore, she concluded that "inasmuch as
there were many scenes in the photoplays depicting action,
yet so large a percentage of the responses were about per-
sons, it would seem that children are not able to discriminate
between people, and people as a part of action" (p. 133).

Contrary to the expectation of many optimistic edu-
cators, Terry found little evidence of "incidental" learning.
Only 25 of the 3,446 responses recorded by the observers
were about manners. A slightly greater number, but a rela-
tively small percentage of the total responses, were made to
speech, dress, recreation, and customs as portrayed in the
films. It is the theory of some more modern educators that
as interest is aroused toward one goal, pupils will "inci-
dentally" learn many of the outcomes set for instruction in
the more traditional organization of pupil experience. The
result of film instruction in American history, as predicted
on the basis of "incidental" theory, would be a knowledge
of the dress, manners, customs, and so forth, of the actors
as well as the knowledge of those things toward which
the interest of the pupils was originally aroused.

Terry did find, however, a great degree of interest in
details on the part of the children, "a knowledge of which
would prove of value to them in their further study of his-
tory" (p. 134).

Despite the fact that commercial moving pictures have
been found to affect the emotions of children to a surprising

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 347

degree, Terry reported that "the primary appeal in pictures
of the type described in the study seems intellectual rather
than emotional as revealed by the larger number of responses
to certain types." (p. 134). It is quite possible that the
effect of the "mental set" engendered in the classroom is
sufficient to offset emotional appeal of the didactic film, par-
ticularly if that emotional appeal is not strongly developed
in the film.

Terry's classifications are not above reproach, in that they
did not sharply differentiate reactions (if such differentiation
is possible). Nevertheless, they indicate the great necessity
of analytical study of the factors of motion-picture films
to which children respond as an essential step in determining
the values of the films.

From the analysis of Terry, it may be concluded that
pupils react to persons in historical photoplays more than
to any other one element, including the abstract element of
action. Apparently the thing in action is important to the
child, i.e., the particularized action.

(j) Responses on nonfilm items. A few experimenters
differentiated the items of tests used to measure results of
instruction into (1) the items whose answers were found
directly or indirectly in the films and (2) the items whose
answers were found in material other than the films.

H. C. Davis (9), in analyzing the topical test results of
the Wood and Freeman study (59), found that the groups
to which films were shown tended to be superior on those
items shown in the film, but that the groups to which other
visual aids and the study material were available tended to
be superior on those test items found in sources of informa-
tion other than the film.

In Rulon's experiment (48), especially written and il-
lustrated textbooks were used in all experimental groups, and
films especially constructed to correlate with the material of
the textbook were presented three times on each unit to the

348 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

film groups. His data show that groups to which the films
were not shown scored 15 per cent higher on nonfilm items
of the immediate tests than did the groups to which the
films were shown. On the retention test, however, this
difference was wiped out.

Arnspiger (2) found that the gains of nonfilm groups
tended to be slightly higher in three of the four natural sci-
ence units on items not shown in the film, but that in all
music units the film groups were slightly higher on these
items.

Results secured on experiments in which standardized
tests were used Cockrum (6), Gatto (17), Knowlton and
Tilton (31), and Mount (41) showed no significant differ-
ence between groups using films in instruction and those using
other methods including demonstrations, experiments, supple-
mentary reading, and so on. Standard tests are not built to
measure particular material covered in a film. The results
from the four experiments mentioned above, therefore, indi-
cate that the mere use of certain films is no guarantee of
increase in all types of learning, or of increase in learning in
all areas of subject illustrated by a film. Furthermore, these
results, and those secured by Davis, Rulon, and Arnspiger,
indicate that when the learning activities of the control
groups are measured to even a slight extent, the control
groups are superior to somewhat the same extent in the
mental activity in which they engaged and that the experi-
mental groups are superior in the particular activity in which
they engaged. These trends are indicated only in so far as
the tests actually measure the results of all types of instruc-
tion and the objectives of these types of instruction.

There is evidence, however, to indicate that on retention
of information not directly illustrated by the films but closely
related to the film material, groups to whom the films are
shown retain approximately the same amount of this mate-

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 349

rial as do the non-film groups, even though the latter are
superior on this material when measured at the end of the
instructional period.

(2) Elimination of wrong responses. The conven-
tional method of measuring effectiveness of any method of
instruction is to record the number of correct responses on
tests designed to measure certain functions. In this way,
the effectiveness of any particular method can be determined
in relation to the amount of specified information, thinking,
explanation, and so on, which the pupil possesses, subject,
of course, to the limiting factors of the experimental pro-
cedure and measures of results. Such a procedure, however,
provides no measure of wrong learning. It is of equal im-
portance in the evaluation of any instructional method to
determine the extent to which this method tends to eliminate
wrong learning as it is to determine the extent to which it
facilitates right learning. In only one investigation of the
values of motion pictures in education was this aspect of
measurement recognized and analyzed.

H. C. Davis (9) set about the task of analyzing the
topical essay-test scores secured by Wood and Freeman
(59). She found that the value of the film in eliminating
wrong and irrelevant statements varied with the units of
instruction and the types of questions. While in a large
number of questions there was no significant difference be-
tween children to whom films were shown and children to
whom they were not shown, on some questions there was a
significant difference. On these latter questions in geography
units, the percentage of children making wrong or irrelevant
responses was lower in the film group, and in the general
science units the percentage of the film group who omitted
answers was less than that of the nonfilm group. In terms of
fewer wrong responses the film group was superior on ques-
tions calling for description.

350 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

From Davis's analysis one value of the film may be said
to lie in its function of reducing the tendency on the part of
pupils to make inaccurate statements and to include unneces-
sary remarks. It cannot, however, be said that the film is
more valuable in this function than are other methods of
instruction. In one subject one method of instruction appears
to be better, and in another subject the other. The value of
the film, then, in eliminating the tendency toward wrong
learning and unorganized thinking varies with the type of
response measured and with the subject matter of instruction.

(3) Effectiveness of films with "dull" and "bright"
pupils. The effectiveness of motion picture films with "dull"
and "bright" children has been studied by Arnspiger (2),
Consitt (7), Davis (9), Knowlton and Tilton (31), Mason
(38), Mock (40), Terry (54), Westfall (57), Wolfe (58).
These investigations were carried on in several different sub-
jects, and the effectiveness of the film was compared with
that of several different methods.

There is agreement of opinion (Consitt, Knowlton and
Tilton, Mock, and Wolfe) that films are relatively more
effective for "dull" than for "bright" children when effec-
tiveness is measured by verbal tests of factual information.
On the other hand, Arnspiger's data indicate that the effec-
tiveness of films with "dull" and "bright" children varies
with the subject matter of the films, and that in neither of
the two school subjects studied in his investigation was the
difference statistically significant. A statistically significant
difference on test scores for "dull" and "bright" pupils
would not necessarily be expected, since the method of in-
struction is identical, and the range of intelligence relatively
small.

Davis, in analyzing the responses of children on topical
tests of the Wood and Freeman investigation (59), found
that films were equally effective for "dull" and "bright"

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 351

pupils. These tests, however, were designed to measure gen-
eralizations and not specific information as were those used
in other investigations.

Terry analyzed children's responses to historical photo-
plays and found that "dull" children respond as readily to
films as do "bright" children, but they do not see as many
details in a film as do the "bright" children.

Westfall reported that "dull" children benefit more from
oral accompaniment to films than do they from the presenta-
tion of films with printed captions or without any verbal
accompaniment whatsoever.

Mason (38) reported that two showings of the same
film were more effective with "dull" than with "bright" chil-
dren. This study indicates the need for different methods
of using films with different types of pupils.

In summary, the effectiveness of films with children of
different levels of "intelligence" must be expected to vary
with the subject taught and with the learning outcomes
measured. Where effectiveness is considered in terms of
verbal responses on factual information, films seem to be
relatively more effective for "dull" than for "bright" chil-
dren, depending on the subject of instruction and the method
of presentation. Where effectiveness is considered in terms
of ability to make verbal generalizations, films do not seem
to be more effective for "dull" than for "bright" pupils.
Where effectiveness is considered in terms of number of dis-
criminations, the films are more effective for "bright" pupils,
because "bright" pupils tend to make more discriminations
than do "dull" pupils.

(4) Effectiveness of films on various grade levels. The
effectiveness of the film with respect to various grade levels
was investigated directly by Consitt (7) and R. L. Davis
(10), and indirectly by Mead (39). Many investigations
have been made of the values of the film in different school

352 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

grades, but these three experimenters are the only ones who
have given direct attention to the problem as such.

Consitt and Davis found that below the third grade in
school, the use of films was less effective than on grade levels
above the third. Both agree that there is a general increase
in effectiveness of the film from the ninth year upward, but
Davis concluded that this increase is not uniform. No evi-
dence has been furnished to indicate the rate of increase or
the point at which effectiveness ceases to increase, if at all.
Consitt noted that the length of the film should be short on
the lower grade levels.

Mead remarked an increase of effectiveness of all methods
of instruction used in his investigation, including nonvisual,
film alone, and film accompanied by verbal discussion, from
the third to the sixth grade, but did not note any particular
increase for any of the three methods of instruction.

Despite the importance of the problem of effectiveness of
films for various age and grade levels, there are few reliable
data available. Consitt's conclusions were arrived at on the
basis of a few teachers' judgments from a few observations;
Davis' data were secured from one four-minute presentation
of a single film; and Mead's interpretation is based on un-
equivalent material and tests.

An increase in pupil reaction to a film would be expected
as the age and grade level of pupils increase. The extent
of the increase, the curve of the increase, and the optimum
point of effectiveness remain to be investigated. The limita-
tions of pupil reaction to films below the third grade may
be due, not to the films or to the grade level of the children,
but to the type of measures used and the type of outcome
expected. Psychologically, the reaction of a seven-year-old
child and a twelve-year-old child to the same film may be,
and probably is, very different in kind, but each child reacts
in some way or another to the film. The problem, then, is

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 353

to determine in what way the movie is effective on various
levels of mental maturity.

(5) The film and economy of time in instruction. Gibbs
(18) and Rogers (45) investigated the value of the film as
an economical method of instruction. Their measures were
in terms of amount of factual information learned per
minute of instruction. Several different methods of study in
which the film and verbal methods of instruction were used
in varying amounts were compared in these investigations.

While there is agreement between Gibbs and Rogers that
the film is an economical method of teaching, the limitations
of the reliability of their tests, the limitations of the tech-
niques of experimentation, and the narrowness of the concept
of "learning" make their data inadequate and their conclu-
sions unsound. The problem of economy is how well pupils
learn to make certain desirable mental reactions in terms of
the amount of time spent in instruction. The time element
will be conditioned by many factors, such as the mental
ability of the pupil, the difficulty of the material, the previous
experience of the pupil, and so on. These factors have been
completely ignored by both Gibbs and Rogers.

(6) Effectiveness of verbal commentary on film presen-
tation. The effectiveness of verbal commentary on film
presentation has been investigated by a large number of
experimenters from several points of view. In practically
all studies, however, the measurement has been in terms of
verbal responses of pupils on objective tests of factual in-
formation. The data from these investigations, consequently,
are applicable only to those types of learning which were
measured on the verbal level by these tests. Such outcomes
as vividness of imagery, variety of visual detail, and so on,
were ignored by the experimenters.

There is general agreement among the results of investi-
gations by Einbecker (13), Mead (39), McClusky (34),

354 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

R D. and H. Y. McClusky (35), Weber (56), and Westfall
(57) that oral commentary on a film is more effective than
presentation of a film without oral commentary or with
written titles. Einbecker and McClusky agree that verbal
accompaniment is better than purely film presentation. Hollis
(25) found evidence that the film followed by verbal dis-
cussion was more effective than the presentation of the film
following the discussion. Consitt (7) reported agreement
with this conclusion.

There is an inconsistency of results in experiments in
which the sound and silent film were compared. Einbecker's
data indicated that the silent picture accompanied by teacher's
comments was superior to talking pictures in the learning of
new technical words or unfamiliar words, but that both were
equally effective in other respects as measured by factual
information. Westfall, on the other hand, interpreted his
results as indicating that a mechanically produced lecture was
significantly superior to any of the other forms of verbal
accompaniment used in his experiment. Both investigations,
however, are attended by rather important limitations.

Clark (5) found that silent and sound films were equally
effective as instructional methods when results were measured
in terms of factual information. Sumstine (53), on the
other hand, found that verbal accompaniment was positively
detrimental in film instruction. Both these investigations,
particularly the latter, are considerably handicapped by limi-
tations of technique of measurement. Hansen (21) reported
no reliable difference between teacher and film commentary,
when the verbalization was identical.

When sound films were compared with demonstrations,
Clark found neither of his two methods significantly superior,
although the demonstration was slightly superior as measured
by tests of factual information. On the other hand, Eads
and Stover (12) found a sound film superior to a demon-

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 355

stration in teaching techniques of diagnosis and remedial
treatment in arithmetic to teachers on the college level.

From the data available on the problem of verbal com-
mentary on film presentation it may be concluded (a) that
some verbal accompaniment is necessary to films when learn-
ing is measured by verbal tests of factual information, (b)
the superiority of sound films or silent films accompanied
by teacher comment depends on the type of material and the
type of comment, (c) verbal discussion after film presentation
is more effective than film presentation after verbal discus-
sion, and (d) oral comment is superior to written comment
because the former eliminates the factor of pupil reading
difficulties.

(7) Frequency and distribution of projection. The
problem of frequency and distribution of film projection has
not been investigated as such in the experiments reported
on the effectiveness of the film. Poland (43) touched upon
the problem, but did not probe deeply. Rulon (48) made
a short preliminary investigation to determine the number
of projections of film material pupils considered optimum,
and on the basis of pupil opinion selected three projections
as a method in his experiment on values of sound films in
general science teaching. McClusky (34) made several
comparisons of frequency of film projection, but the basis of
comparison was the use of some other visual aid. Wood and
Freeman (59) arbitrarily selected the method of presenting
the whole film first and the various reels later in those parts
of the unit which they illustrated. Eads and Stover (12)
compared the effectiveness of one and two projections of
films, but not in relation to other classroom procedures.
Dash (8) varied the number of projections but obtained no
significant data for general usage.

Eads and Stover found that students who saw a film twice
made higher scores on a test of factual information than did
students who only saw it once.

356 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

No conclusions on the problem of frequency and distri-
bution of projection are justified on the basis of experimental
data reported so far.

(8) Auditorium and classroom projection of films.
The problem of use of films in relation to the size of the
instructional group was investigated by Knowlton and Tilton
(30). In this investigation, average-sized class groups were
shown historical photoplays in the classroom in addition to
the regular verbal instruction, and groups of over two hun-
dred pupils were shown the same films in the school audi-
torium. In the auditorium instruction other visual aids were
generally used to fill in the class period before or after the
film presentation. It was found that the results on factual
tests were consistently higher for the groups who had seen
the films in the classroom.

This result follows from the fact that pupils, like adults,
react to total situations, and that the situation in the audi-
torium is entirely different from that of the classroom. A
school auditorium is generally used for assemblies, entertain-
ments, and the like, and as such produces a different "mental
set" in the pupils than does the classroom, which is the normal
situation for instruction.

Stoddard (52) compared auditorium film use with class-
room nonfilm use, but since a duality of factors was involved
his conclusions do not pertain to the problem of auditorium
versus classroom projection.

IV. IMPLICATIONS OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA FOR
EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE

This section is devoted to suggestions on the use of
motion pictures and related visual aids in the classroom, as
gleaned from the results of the various investigations.

It is not the purpose here to present a Talmud, a Koran,
or a Bible of authoritative doctrines which must be followed

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 357

by the orthodox teacher, the conservative administrator, or
the aspiring research worker. The discussion is purely
suggestive.

Educational Use of Visual Aids. The suggestions here-
with presented apply in the main to the use of the motion
picture, but are also extended in application to the use of
other visual aids closely allied to the motion picture. In some
situations the motion picture has no inherent advantage over
other visual aids, such as the demonstration, the slide, and
the like. The discussion, therefore, is extended to the motion
picture and related aids.

Suggestions pertaining to the use of visual aids in school
situations are presented under four aspects: (a) the place of
visual aids in instruction, (b) the amount of visual instruc-
tion, (c) the type of visual aid, and (d) the technique of use
of visual aids. Various factors which should determine these
various aspects of instruction are presented in this discussion.

As these aspects are inseparably related to one another,
so it will be found that the application of the suggestions
in regard to any one aspect is contingent upon conditions
in relation to the other aspects. For instance, in the dis-
cussion of the amount of visual instruction, this aspect cannot
be isolated and abstracted from all other aspects; rather, the
amount of visual instruction is related to the place of visual
education in instruction, to the type of visual instruction, and
to the technique of the use of visual aids. Similarly, this
interrelation of aspects involves a fundamental functional
unity of conditioning psychological factors, i. e., the same
conditioning psychological factors are basic to all four aspects.
Consequently, the procedure suggested in any one of these
aspects is not only a function of the other three, but of the
same psychological factors operative in all four.

(a) The place of visual aids in instruction. The place
of visual aids in instruction is a function of (1) the educa-

358 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

tional outcomes which are set for instruction, and (2) the
mental development of the children in relation to the par-
ticular subject matter of instruction. If, in a given unit of
learning, the outcome of instruction is to be improved facility
in language expression, in reading ability, in study habits,
and the like, the use of visual aids, if used at all, must be
subordinate to verbal instruction. If, on the other hand, the
outcome of the unit is to be richer experience, more vivid
imagery, or more detailed concrete knowledge, visual aids
become increasingly important. Still again, if the outcome
of instruction is ability to form meaningful generalizations,
a combination of visual aids, verbal instruction, and teaching
of generalization should be used. The mere use of visual
aids without verbal instruction and without tuition in gen-
eralization is no guarantee that meaningful generalization will
result from instruction.

In the determination of the place of visual aids in the
curriculum, the important consideration is not the visual aid.
The center of importance is the child the changes to be
made in him toward set outcomes. The value of the visual
aid (motion picture or otherwise) is relative to the change
in the child in the direction of the desired outcome.

The question is not this visual aid or none, or this visual
aid or that visual aid. The real question which confronts
the teacher is : How can I bring about the desired change in
the child? Visual aids, like verbal instruction, are means
toward the larger end.

The determination of the place of visual aids in instruc-
tion, then, is a function of the desired outcome of instruction
in relation to the present mental development of the child.

(b) The amount of visual instruction. The extent to
which visual aids must be used is a function of (1) the
intellectual level of the pupil, (2) his previous experience in
the subject, and (3) the difficulty of the learning material.

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 359

The difference in ability to discriminate psychological objects,
the difference in rate of generalization, and the difference in
habits of concrete and abstract mental activity between the
"dull" and the "bright" pupil determine the extent to which
visual aids should be used with these pupils. Apparently
"bright" pupils do not require the same amount of visual
experience as do "dull" children for either elementary dis-
crimination or abstract generalization. It is a mistake to
believe, however, that visual aids are harmful to "bright"
pupils. This misconception arises from the failure to con-
sider all the possible types of value to be derived. "Dull"
pupils get one thing; "bright" pupils get another from the
same film. Visual experience does not always result in
meaningful abstraction on the part of the "bright" pupil to
the extent that the presentation of more abstract study
material does. On the other hand, "bright" pupils seem to
observe more material in visual aids than do "dull" children.
Consequently, visual aids must be used more often with the
"dull" child than with the "bright" child.

A second condition of the amount of visual instruction,
in addition to the intellectual level of the pupil, is the extent
and adequacy of previous experience. Thus, pupils in cer-
tain sections of certain Southern states will not require the
same amount of visual instruction in the economic geography
of cotton culture as will pupils in other sections of the
country in which cotton is not raised.

Finally, amount of visual instruction is determined by the
complexity of the learning material. The relative amount of
visual experience necessary to the various desirable outcomes
of instruction will increase, in proportion to the complexity
of material, from the relatively simple to the relatively
complex.

(c) The type of visual aid. The type of visual aid the
school journey, the object or model, the stereograph, the film,

360 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

the slide, the flat picture, the map, the chart, or the like to
be used will be determined by (1) the previous experience
of the pupil, (2) the type of learning outcome, and (3) the
type of material being studied.

If the purpose of instruction is to reconstruct the past,
to show the interaction of persons, processes, or events, and
to do these things in detail, the film is an excellent medium
of instruction. The value of any particular film or films is
determined by the amount of previous experience of the
pupil with this type of activity. If, on the other hand, a
knowledge of objects, particular settings, or particular
things, is the desired outcome of instruction, the presentation
of the object itself, or of various types of reproductions of
the object will be equally effective if not superior to the film.
The advantage of flexibility of instruction inheres in a
method which can be adapted in time and amount of instruc-
tion in relation to the particular needs of the pupils and the
particular outcomes of instruction. If, finally, the object of
instruction is to teach how to do a certain act, the actual
demonstration of how to do the act is probably superior to
a film or other visual aids.

(d) Technique of use of visual aids. The particular
way in which visual aids are to be used, whether they should
be presented with or without verbal accompaniment, whether
they should be presented before or after verbal instruction,
and how rapid and rhythmical the sequence should be, is a
function of (1) the previous experience of the pupils, (2)
the objective of instruction, and (3) the difficulty of the
material of instruction.

If, for instance, pupils have had relatively little previous
experience in a certain subject, and the objective of instruc-
tion is vivid visual imagery, a short introductory talk on the
relation of the visual material to the subject and a few re-
marks on the direction of observation toward certain parts

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 361

of the visual material may be sufficient. If, however, the abil-
ity to generalize and to relate this material to other material
is the desired outcome, verbal discussion following the pres-
entation is advantageous. The rapidity with which the visual
aids should be presented and the rhythm of their presentation
are largely functions of the difficulty of the material of in-
struction.

No hard and fast rules may be laid down on the matter
of verbal accompaniment or when it should be used. Verbal
experience is a prerequisite to verbal learning. Its use is a
function of the particular mental reaction desired.

V. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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ness of Motion Pictures in Teaching Industrial Arts
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thesis, Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas.
1932.

2. Arnspiger, Varney C. "Measuring the Effectiveness of

Sound Pictures as Teaching Aids." Contributions to
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157 p.

3. Brown, H. E. "Motion Picture or Film Slide ?" School

Science and Mathematics. 28:517-26. May 1928.

4. Cameron, Virgil E. "A Comparison Between the Use

of Motion Pictures and the Question-Discussion
Method in Teaching High School Physics." Un-
published M. S. thesis, University of Southern Cali-
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5. Clark, Clarence C. "Sound Motion Pictures as an Aid

in Classroom Teaching." Unpublished Ph. D, thesis,
School of Education, New York University. 1932.

6. Cockrum, Audra Earl. "An Experimental Study of

the Motion Picture Film as an Aid to Teaching
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versity of Illinois. 1932.

7. Consitt, Frances. The Value of Films in History Teach-

ing. G. Bell and Sons, Ltd. London. 1931. 431 p.

362 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

8. Dash, Abraham J. "Effectiveness of Sound Film in

Changing Knowledge of and Interest in Chemistry."
Unpublished M. S. thesis, College of the City of
New York. 1935.

9. Davis, Helen Caldwell. "Specific Values of Educational

Films Used as Supplementary Aids." Unpublished
Ph. D. thesis, the University of Chicago. 1932.

10. Davis, Roy Lefevre. "The Application of Motion Pic-

tures to Education." Unpublished Ph. D. thesis, New
York University. 1923.

11. Diller, Hilda Marie. "A Comparative Study of Sound

Motion Pictures and Oral Classroom Instruction."
Unpublished M. A. thesis, George Washington Uni-
versity. 1935.

12. Eads, Laura Krieger and Stover, Edgar M. "Talking

Pictures in Teacher Training." Unpublished report
of an experiment carried on with the cooperation
of Professor Ralph B. Spence, Professor Goodwin
Watson, Dr. Ina Sartorius and Dr. Margaret Barker
of Teachers College, Columbia University, New York.
1932.

13. Einbecker, William Francis. "Comparison of Verbal

Accompaniments to Films." School Review. 41 :
185-92. March 1933.

14. Freeman, Frank N. and Hoefer, Carolyn. "An Ex-

perimental Study of the Influence of Motion Picture
Films on Behavior." Journal of Educational Psychol-
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15. Freeman, Frank N., Reeder, E. H., and Thomas, Jean

A. "An Experiment to Study the Effectiveness of
a Motion Picture Film Which Consists Largely of
Tables, Maps, and Charts, as a Means of Teaching
Facts or Giving Abstract Information." In Visual
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p. 258-74.

16. Freeman, Frank N., Shaw, Lena A., and Walker, D. E.,

"The Use of a Motion Picture Film to Teach Posi-
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17. Gatto, Frank M. "Experimental Studies on the Use

of Visual Aids in the Teaching of Geography."
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RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 363

18. Gibbs, David. "An Experiment as to Economy of Time

in Instruction by Use of Motion Pictures." Educa-
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19. Hackett, R. J. "An Experiment with Motion Pictures

in Teaching Zoology." Unpublished M. A. thesis,
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20. Hansen, John Elmore. "The Effect of Educational

Motion Pictures upon the Retention of Informational
Learning." Journal of Experimental Education. 2 :
1-4. September 1933.

21. Hansen, John Elmore. "The Verbal Accompaniment of

the Educational Film The Recorded Voice versus
the Voice of the Classroom Teacher." Journal of
Experimental Education. 5 :l-6. September 1936.

22. Hinman, Stanley T. "The Value of Pre-Knowledge of

Tests in Stimulating Pupils to Observe and Retain
Facts Presented in Motion Pictures." Unpublished
M. A. thesis, New York University. 1931.

23. Hoar, Franklin B. "An Experiment With Motion

Pictures in Health Instruction." Unpublished M. A.
thesis, University of Pittsburgh. 1932.

24. Hoefer, Carolyn and Keith, Edna. "An Experimental

Comparison of the Methods of Oral and Film In-
struction in the Field of Health Education." In
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25. Hollis, A. P. "The Effectiveness of the Motion Picture,

Demonstration by the Teacher, and Oral Instruction
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41.

26. Hollis, A. P. "The Effectiveness of the Motion Picture

Used as an Introduction or as the Summary." In
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27. Hopkins, B. S. and Dawson, H. G. "An Experiment in

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29. James, Haddon W. "The Relative Effectiveness of Six

Forms of Lesson Presentation: Film, Lecture, Still
Picture, Film-Lecture, Film-Music, and Reading, with

364 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Particular Emphasis on the Suitability of Different
Types of Material for Film Presentation." In Visual
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30. Knowlton, Daniel C. and Tilton, J. Warren. "Auditorium

Versus Classroom Showing of Motion Pictures in
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31. Knowlton, Daniel C. and Tilton, J. Warren. Motion

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as an Educational Agency." Teachers College
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33. Lemon, H. B. "Use of Motion Pictures in Physics

Teaching." School Science and Mathematics. 22:
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34. McClusky, F. Dean. "Comparisons of Different Methods

of Visual Instruction." In Visual Education, p. 83-
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35. McClusky, F. D. and McClusky, H. Y. "Comparison of

Six Modes of Presentation of the Subject-Matter
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36. McClusky, F. D. and McClusky, H. Y. "Comparison

of Motion Pictures, Slides, Stereographs, and Demon-
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37. Marchant, James (ed.) The Cinema in Education

George Allen & Unwin, Ltd. London. 1925.

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39. Mead, Cyrus D. "Visual vs. Teaching Methods An

Experiment." Educational Administration and
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Use of Motion Pictures with Bright and with Dull
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41. Mount, James Nathaniel. "The Learning Value of

Motion Pictures in High School Physics as Compared
to the Use of Supplementary Textbooks." Unpub-
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(Seattle) 1931.

RESEARCH IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS 365

42. Phillips, Howard William. "An Experimental Study

in the Use of Motion Pictures in the Classroom."
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1931.

43. Poland, Ernest Ira. "The Efficiency of the Motion

Picture Program in a Junior High School." Un-
published M. A. thesis, Boston University. 1933.
105 p.

44. Reeder, E. H. and Freeman, Frank N. "A Comparison

of the Teaching Value of Film and Oral Instruction
in the Case of Two Short Projects and One Longer
Project." In Visual Education, p. 167-89.

45. Rogers, Rowland. "Cutting the Time of Learning."

Educational Screen. 4:13-14. January 1925.

46. Rolfe, E. C. "A Comparison of the Effectiveness of

a Motion Picture Film and of Demonstration in
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47. Ruffa, Edward J. "An Experimental Study of Motion

Pictures as Used in the Teaching of Certain Athletic
Skills." Unpublished M. A. thesis, Leland Stan-
ford Junior University. 1935.

48. Rulon, Phillip Justin. "The Sound Motion Picture in

Science Teaching." Harvard Studies in Education,
Vol. 20. Harvard University Press. 1933. 236 p.

49. Secor, Carl T. "A Comparative Study of the Effective-

ness of the Motion Picture in the Teaching of High
School Biology." Unpublished M. A. thesis, New
York University. 1931.

50. Skinner, Charles E. and Rich, Stephen G. ^ An Experi-

mental Study of the Effects of Visual Aids in Teach-
ing Geography. Society for Visual Education, Inc.
Chicago. 1 1925.

51. Snyder, Henry Anderson. "Historical Motion Pictures

in the Junior High School." Unpublished M. A.
thesis, University of Pittsburgh. 1930.

52. Stoddard, A. J. "Visual Aids and the Economic Situa-

tion." Educational Screen. 13:13. January 1934.

53. Sumstine, David. "A Comparative Study of Visual

Instruction in the High School." School and Society.
7:235-8. February 23, 1918.

54. Terry, Laura Grace. "Types of Children's Responses

to the Yale Chronicles of America Photoplays." Un-
published M. A. thesis, School of Education, New
York University. 1932.

366 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

55. Watkins, Ralph K. 'The Learning Value of Some

Motion Pictures in High School Physics and General
Science as an Illustration of Simplified Technique in
Educational Experimentation." Educational Screen.
10:135-7. May 1931.

56. Weber, Joseph J. Comparative Effectiveness of Some

Visual Aids in Seventh Grade Instruction. Educa-
tional Screen, Inc. Chicago. 1922. 132 p.

57. Westfall, Leon H. "A Study of Verbal Accompani-

ments to Educational Motion Pictures." Contribu-
tions to Education, No. 617. Bureau of Publications,
Teachers College, Columbia University, New York.
1934.

58. Wolfe, Harold G. "An Experimental Evaluation of the

Motion Picture as an Aid in Classroom Teaching."
Unpublished M. A. thesis, University of Rochester.
1930.

59. Wood, Ben D. and Freeman, Frank N. Motion Pictures

in the Classroom. Houghton MifHin Company. New
York. 1929. 392 p.

60. Woodburn, Lester O. "An Experimental Study of the

Effectiveness of Silent Motion Pictures in Ninth
Grade General Science." Unpublished M. A. thesis,
University of Cincinnati. 1936.

61. Young, A. L. "Teaching with Motion Pictures."

Peabody Journal of Education. 3 :321-6. May 1926.

PART Six

TEACHER PREPARATION IN VISUAL
EDUCATION

COMPILED BY

FANNIE W. DUNN
ETTA SCHNEIDER

TEACHER PREPARATION IN VISUAL
EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

The need for preparation of teachers in the utilization
of visual aids is commonly recognized in administrative pro-
grams * and has been voiced in public addresses and published
articles for at least fifteen years. Such statements are found
as the following:

"We cannot hope to achieve the results that are predicted through
the use of visual materials without training teachers in this new tech-
nique."

"The director of visual education, in cooperation with specialists
throughout the school system must provide for the training of teachers
in service. There are definite techniques for the use of visual aids, and
teachers should be specially trained in those techniques."

"The visual-aids department should train teachers in proper methods
of using aids and equipment. Provide means whereby teachers may
learn methods of visual presentation before the equipment is purchased."

These statements may be interpreted as suggesting as
means to be employed both pre-service and in-service training,
college courses, in residence or extension, and supervisory
activities of general supervisors or directors of visual
education.

This compilation is concerned particularly with institu-
tional provision through college offerings to be used by
teachers either before or during actual employment. For a
bibliography dealing with the in-service education afforded
through supervisors within the school system, the digests on
administration of visual aids should be consulted.

A survey 2 in 1922 revealed a beginning of definite pro-
vision both for pre-service and in-service training of teach-

1 See articles by Strayer, Gregory, Reitze, Whittinghill, Sigman, Worrell, and
Brunstetter in the section on Administration.

2 Dorris, Anna V. "Training of Teachers in Visual Instruction."

370 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

ers. Half a dozen normal schools were offering courses in
visual instruction, of which four were in the regular session
and two in summer. Some schools not offering courses
reported use of visual aids in the teaching of science and
geography. In at least one city system, provision was being
made for training teachers in service.

Practically ever since the publication of this survey, a
campaign of promotion has been carried on in more or less
organized fashion by administrators and teachers impressed
with the need of teacher preparation in the visual field. Re-
sults are noticeable if not noteworthy. In the summer of
1937, eighty-six such courses were reported 3 from eighty
institutions, mainly state universities and teachers' colleges.
Two states have made preparation in this field mandatory for
teachers, Pennsylvania by requiring it for certification, and
New Jersey by making it a requirement in the four-year
teachers' college courses.

In view of the widespread and increasing interest today
in the educational use of visual materials and the expression
of this interest as notably illustrated in Pennsylvania's and
New Jersey's recent provisions for the preparation of teach-
ers in this field, it has become extremely important to con-
sider what the nature and content of the preparation should
be. Diverse opinions are held by leaders in the field, both as
to the desirable inclusion and the curriculum organization of
the offerings to be made.

The most conspicuous question of organization is whether
a specific course, or courses, in visual education, sometimes
called a core course, should be offered, 4 or whether the field
should receive attention through exploitation of the visual
aspects and materials of all college courses. 5 The field is
somewhat analogous to English. Indeed, in a recent con-

8 "Summer Courses in Visual Instruction." Educational Screen. May 1937.

4 Merton, McClusky, Yeager.

B Freeman, McClusky (Finding the Facts), Anderson, Gregory.

TEACHER PREPARATION 371

f erence 6 on Teacher Training in Visual Instruction, one par-
ticipant stated that visual materials constitute a new language
of communication, the use of which is comparably important
to the use of the spoken or printed word. It is a common
position of English instructors that they alone are unable
to give all the teaching needed in that field and that every
teacher, of whatever subject, has a part to play in developing
his students' control of the mother tongue through their
practice in employing it effectively to the ends appropriate
in his course.

Common positions with respect to visual education are
of three types : ( 1 ) It is an essential part of practically every
field -of education, and the best possible preparation of teach-
ers to make use of visual materials is to observe and use
them in their functional relationships in each course. (2)
Special courses are necessary in order to effect the necessary
learnings involved in the full scope of visual education.
(3) A combination or compromise between the two posi-
tions is the best solution.

Arguments are advanced both for and against the "core"
course 7 or special department provision for visual education.
It is claimed in support of special provision that what is
everybody's business is nobody's business. The opposing
argument is twofold : ( 1 ) the scope of visual education is
too broad for any one person's or department's grasp; and
(2) the most effective educational procedure ties materials
and technique to content.

The scope contemplated by leading representatives in
the field of visual instruction is indeed extensive, including
orientation both historically and philosophically; acquaint-
ance with all types of visual aids, from the excursion to the
sound motion picture, both as to their use and their produc-
tion through photography, scenario writing, slide making,

See footnote 11.

7 See footnotes 4 and 5, above.

372 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

and the like; knowledge of sources of both free and com-
mercial materials; criteria for .selection; technical and me-
chanical problems in the use, care, and repair of apparatus
and equipment; methods of use in various school fields and
on the several educational levels, including psychology and
techniques; application of the theatrical motion picture to
education; and problems of supervision and administration.

The tendency in some teachers' colleges to minimize
emphasis on methods of teaching to the extent of offering
no separate courses in methods is an illustration of the
extreme application of the second argument against special
courses in visual education, since the field is probably best
interpreted as a method of teaching, rather than as a self-
contained body of content.

An answer to the question of the appropriate organiza-
tion of teacher training in this field can be reached only
through consideration of the objectives and functions to be
served by visual materials, and of the knowledges, under-
standings, skills, attitudes, and appreciations with respect to
usual materials which are needed by teachers and principals.
Such a study is yet to be made.

An illustration of a compromise, or compromise position,
which utilizes every department of the college and provides
in addition a special spear-head course is to be found in the
recently developed curriculum for New Jersey's four-year
teachers' colleges. A course in visual education is here
offered in the third year, with the purpose of organizing,
supplementing, and systematizing the more incidental learn-
ings with respect to visual materials which are designed to
characterize the course offerings in any subject wherein they
are pertinent throughout the college course. Thus courses
in geography presumably will make use of maps, excursions,
slides, still pictures, models, films, or other materials con-
tributing to the acquisition of desired geographical learnings,

TEACHER PREPARATION 373

and will arouse the awareness of the prospective teacher to
the contributions of such resources in this field of study;
courses in English will utilize motion-picture presentations
of Shakespeare's plays or Dickens' novels and develop dis-
crimination and appreciation of the art of the cinema;
courses in the physical sciences may study the mechanics of
projection or photography; courses in psychology may con-
sider visual stimuli and their effect on attention, or the
place of objective and concrete experience in the development
of ideas.

It will be the province of the visual-education course in
this total program to draw upon all these preceding learnings,
synthesize them, and organize them with such supplementary
content as is necessary, so as to point toward the application
and use of visual materials in pursuing the general and
special objectives of the several fields of teaching or admin-
istration which lie before the students. Whatever the ulti-
mate decision on this question of organization (if a single
answer should indeed be reached in every case), it seems
probable that the whole problem of teacher preparation may
need to be attacked in two stages or along two parallel lines.
There possibly should be in most situations both short-time
and long-time programs, the former including elementary
acquaintance with the simpler materials and techniques, the
latter involving a large approach to the whole purpose.
Manuals, similarly, may be of two types.

A means of instruction for teachers generally recognized
as of paramount value, is demonstration, involving both the
mechanical and instructional aspects of the utilization of
visual materials. Courses in visual education which use the
laboratory method should include not only the handling and
preparation of materials, but also demonstrations whereby
students may observe how visual aids are used in teaching
and to what advantage.

374 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Another important factor upon which the question of
training teachers is based, is the need for cooperative work.
Such cooperation is needed among members of the faculty
of an institution of higher learning, and between the institu-
tion and teachers or school systems in the field.

The greatest need, however, with respect to in-service
training of teachers is for efficient supervision. This need
has been well summarized by Brunstetter. 8

Supervision is probably the most important means of insuring the
development of film-teaching skill. The initial basic training serves to
give teachers a background of knowledge and understanding of the film
medium, but supervision guides them as they grow in the ability to
utilize the film in the classroom. Intelligent, sympathetic criticisms and
suggestions, given by supervisors who have a keen appreciation of the
part which audio-visual materials of instruction may play in the attain-
ment of objectives and in the mastery of subject matter, will stimulate
teachers to creative use of all the devices at their command. On the
other hand, a supervisor who is either uninterested or unaware of the
possibilities inherent in the working tools of the classroom may eventu-
ally dampen any enthusiasm which the teacher might generate.

One of the activities of the Committee on Motion Pic-
tures in Education of the American Council on Education
has been the initiation of several conferences on teacher
training in visual education. The proceedings of the con-
ferences held at Milwaukee and Teachers College, Columbia
University, N.Y. respectively are now available in mimeo-
graphed form from the American Council on Education,
744 Jackson Place, Washington, B.C. 9 " 10 All the problems
of teacher preparation in visual education were discussed
at these meetings by persons concerned with teacher training
in this field.

8 Bminstetter, M. R. How to Use the Educational Sound Film. University
of Chicago Press. 1937.

"A Conference on Teacher Training in Visual Instruction." Report of

conference sponsored jointly by the University of Wisconsin and the American

Council on Education. Milwaukee, Wisconsin. November 5, 1936. Edgar Dale,
chairman.

ro "Teacher Training in Modern Teaching Aids." Report of conference
sponsored jointly by Fannie W. Dunn, Teachers College, Columbia University and
the American Council on Education. Held at Teachers College, N.Y., January 18,
1937. Charles F. Hoban, Jr., chairman.

TEACHER PREPARATION 375

The compilation that follows has been organized into
sections representing different aspects of the problem of
teacher guidance in visual instruction. In making these
divisions, however, the editors found that some discussions
covered more than one phase of the topic. Such articles
have been cross-referenced wherever possible.

Some basic questions in the minds of administrators and
leaders in institutions for the preparation of teachers have
been the following:

1. What is the need for teacher preparation in visual edu-
cation ? Why, in other words, is this preparation so important ?

2. What have been the trends in teacher preparation for
the use of visual aids? Who has made important contributions
in this field?

3. How can teachers in service be trained or guided in the
use of visual aids ?

4. What scope of instruction is desirable in the use of visual
aids? Or, as one author expressed it, what should a course in
visual instruction include?

5. What responsibility have educators in developing an
appreciation of theatrical motion pictures?

6. Should courses in visual education be separate, or should
guidance be offered in special methods courses ?

7. What is being taught in courses in visual education?

These questions have been answered by several eminent
educators, some of them pioneer leaders in the visual-
education movement. It must be remembered, however, that
we were limited in our quotation of opinion to such contri-
butions as have appeared in print. It is very likely that
important analyses have been omitted from this compilation,
owing to the fact that they are not accessible in published
form.

In some instances, it seemed desirable to review materials
published some time ago. These have been included for
purposes of comparison with more recent findings and to
show to what extent the early proposals for the preparation
of teachers have been carried out. Since the large-scale

376 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

movement for teacher training in visual education is only
now beginning, the suggestions of pioneer thinkers may still
be of value.

I. THE NEED FOR TEACHER PREPARATION

One of the first requirements of administrators and
teachers after they have been impressed with the need for
using visual-sensory aids in the classroom is some form of
guidance in handling and correlating these aids. Dorris, in
her book, Visual Instruction in the Public Schools, considers
the problem at length. A digest of her discussion will serve
to introduce the subject.

Dorris, Anna V. "The Need of Teacher-Training in Visual
Instruction." In Visual Instruction in the Public Schools.
Ginn and Company. Boston. 1928. Chapter 8, p. 369-81.

Four fundamental problems briefly treated in this chapter
on the training of teachers are as follows : Why should capable
teachers need special training in visual instruction? Who should
be trained in the technique of visual instruction in the public
schools? How should teachers be trained in this new field?
What should be the content of this training?

Visual instruction, as interpreted today, is a comparatively
recent problem in education and involves the use and care of
new, and more or less complex, materials and apparatus. The
majority of teachers are still trained to use textbooks and sub-
ject matter as such in the teaching of, say, geography or history,
rather than tools such as objective materials and projection
apparatus.

It is essential, therefore, that teachers be given an opportunity
to acquaint themselves with these new methods. Opportuni-
ties should be provided within each school system, since it is
often impossible for teachers to undertake university extension
courses while actually engaged in teaching.

Another urgent need is the supervision of procedures already
in practice. Many schools throughout the country are equipped
with visual equipment, but it is used in a haphazard fashion
and with little knowledge of any definite technique. The finest
tool is worthless if placed in unskilled hands.

TEACHER PREPARATION 377

In order that visual instruction may function educationally it
is all but essential that principals and supervisors be trained as
well as teachers, particularly in the proper techniques for using
visual materials. When such training is required of all primary
and secondary supervisors in both city and rural schools, greater
efficiency will result in every department. If more adminis-
trators had a clear conception of the educational need for visual
materials and their many uses, the training of the classroom
teacher would naturally follow and her task would be much
simplified. Administrators are greatly concerned over the choice
of textbooks and their influence in the classroom; but though
slides and motion pictures may be capable of wielding a far
greater influence over the minds of young children than texts,
their choice, both as to quality and subject matter, is often left
in unskilled hands and even to laymen who do not understand
public-school needs.

The training of the classroom teacher involves more inten-
sive study than that of any other school person. Since she
actually handles the material and works with the children, she
must master the correct techniques. Her training, further,
must be more than theory to her; it must be actual practice
day after day. As teachers are usually overworked, it is sug-
gested that extra training be made simple and interesting and
that all possible cooperation be given the teacher during her
training.

Various plans have been used successfully. General instruc-
tional classes, for instance, may be held by the educational head
of a visual-instruction department. Such classes may meet
weekly for five or six weeks with attendance optional on the
part of teachers. Instruction should be given by means of
lectures and demonstration lessons in the use of visual materials.
According to another plan, general training for rural schools
may be given through conferences with rural supervisors and
through annual institute lectures and section work. Such sessions
may stimulate teachers to take more comprehensive work dur-
ing summer sessions at teachers' colleges and universities. Or
courses may be had at teacher-training institutions. In such
courses visual instruction is sometimes classed with vocational
guidance, character development, or educational tests and
measurement, as a new method in educational procedure.

378 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

From studies made of the extent to which visual instruction
was taught in 1924 and in 1927-28, it is concluded that there
is need for two types of training one for students preparing for
the teaching profession ; the other to meet the needs of teachers
already in service.

The way in which San Francisco State Teachers College
handled the situation is interesting. This college offered a full-
credit visual-instruction course for teachers to encourage and
aid schools in securing equipment for a wider and more sys-
tematic use of visual instruction. The course presented good
practical methods of using visual materials. Other courses were
offered after school and on Saturday mornings. One of these
consisted of lectures, demonstrations of all visual materials,
reports of progress on individual problems, and laboratory
work. Topics discussed in the lectures included the need for
improving and enriching classroom work, fundamental reasons
underlying the uses of visual instruction, practical pedagogical
methods of procedure in the classroom, special uses and sources
of supply, care and use of apparatus, how to start a distributing
center, how to equip schools for visual instruction, and ways
and means of earning money for equipment. The demonstration
consisted of typical lessons, presented either by the instructor
or by members of the group. This feature was probably the
most helpful part of the course, as it showed concretely what
the members were actually accomplishing in their regular class-
room work under the influence of the instruction.

Another type of course offered by the State Teachers College
was the field course. Upon request, the instructor visited
principals and individual teachers in their schools and endeavored
to give them concrete help in solving the problems that arose
daily in visual instruction. Twenty-one different schools were
visited at least a few times. By the end of the year, twelve
of the twenty-one were fairly well equipped to carry on visual-
instruction work and three had started school libraries of visual
materials. Every teacher, by the time she had finished the
course, had accumulated her own collection of well-mounted
pictures, exhibits, charts, and graphs to use in enriching her
own classroom teaching. The improvement in the atmosphere
of the schoolrooms was remarkable.

An advanced course was then offered for those who wished
to proceed further. Courses, using the same instructor, were

TEACHER PREPARATION 379

eventually offered at the University of California in Berkeley
and at the State Teachers College in San Francisco. The courses
are rated by the Board of Education as courses in education,
and full college credit is given for their completion.

A beginners' course should treat three problems. One of
these is the fundamental reason and technique for using visual
instruction in classroom teaching. A consideration of this
topic would necessarily include a consideration of modern
pedagogy and the psychological principles on which it depends.
The second problem is that of the source of supply and con-
cerns the care and use of materials and apparatus. Each visual
aid should be dealt with separately. Ample opportunity should
be given students for practice in using visual materials and
apparatus. This may be managed by arranging with special
training-school classes for demonstration periods ; or the teacher-
training group may assume the attitude of a regular class while
various students participate in solving definite problems by
using different illustrative material and apparatus. The third
problem treated should be that of enriching the curriculum
by means of visual instruction. This problem is so inclusive
that it is almost necessary to incorporate it into an advanced
course. Thirty-six-hour courses allow scarcely enough time
for adequate training in visual education. In an advanced course
of thirty-six to fifty-four hours, several days may be devoted
to each of the most important subjects of the curriculum.

A syllabus should be placed in the hands of students which
includes an adequate bibliography on visual instruction in rela-
tion to modern pedagogy. Specialists in the field will profit by
short courses in photography, electricity, graph making, and
so on.

Special courses in visual instruction can be greatly simplified
and shortened if instructors in educational procedure in sub-
jects such as geography, history, and the like will include in
their courses on methods the principles involved in the use of
visual materials.

Hoban, C. F. (formerly State Director of Visual Education,
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania) "Enlisting Visual-Sensory Aids."
Journal of Education. 115:516-18. September 19, 1932.

Hoban gives examples of verbalism in the schools and sug-
gests that the introduction of visual-sensory aids will do much

380 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

to correct this situation. He states: "It is my firm conviction
that next to educational psychology, this visual-sensory aids
course possesses greater values, from the instructional and
learning viewpoints, than any other professional course in edu-
cation." He points out, too, that Pennsylvania's Board of
Teachers College Presidents has made a visual-sensory aids
course mandatory in all the state-owned teacher-preparation
institutions of thai state.

A significant series of proposals was outlined in 1932 by
the newly formed Department of Visual Instruction of the
National Education Association. These are quoted by Hoban
in another article as ample proof of the need for some form
of teacher preparation.

Hoban, C. F. "Possibilities of Visual-Sensory Aids in Edu-
cation." Educational Screen. 11:198-9,202. September 1932.
An address given before the College Section of the National
Education Association at Atlantic City, June 30, 1932.

Some of the shortcomings of elementary-school instruction
may be laid to verbalism. A cure may be found in the intelligent
use of visual-sensory aids in the instructional and the learning
processes. To use visual-sensory aids effectively, however,
teachers must be familiar with these tools of teaching where
to get them and how to use them. Responsibility for the dis-
semination of this knowledge and technique rests with the
teacher-preparation institutions of the country. An analysis,
recently made of over one hundred experimental studies in the
field of visual instruction, established beyond question the value
of visual aids in education. This is a challenge to every superin-
tendent and supervising official in the country.

When the National Academy of Visual Instruction and the
Department of Visual Instruction of the National Education
Association merged in 1932, the following declarations were
made:

1. Experimental studies, research, and surveys have
revealed definite and important values for visual aids.

2. A knowledge of these visual-sensory aids and a technique
for their use require special preparation.

TEACHER PREPARATION 381

3. The contribution that visual-sensory aids make to im-
proved instruction justifies a requirement that every
teacher in training in the public schools of the United
States take a laboratory course in visual-sensory aids.

4. Some means should be developed to train teachers in
service in this field.

The opinion of students in this field is that the practice of
offering separate visual-sensory-aid courses in each of the several
subjects, such as history, science, and the like, is a mistake
since such a procedure results in confusion and duplication
of effort. The feeling prevails that the core curriculum of visual -
sensory-aids training should consist of the following elements
common to practically all subjects: research and historical back-
ground; psychological aspects and verbalism; projectors and
projection; school journeys; object-specimen-models and museum
procedure; pictorial materials; still-photography and motion-
picture camera techniques; blackboard and bulletin-board
techniques; administration and budgeting of visual material;
radio-vision ; bibliography.

If a course in visual-sensory aids were to be made mandatory
for every person preparing to teach in the schools of the nation,
if superintendents of schools were to encourage teachers in
service to take such a course either in extension or at summer
schools and if visual-sensory aids were to be used effectively
in the schoolrooms of America, the next ten years would witness
one of the greatest contributions to the improvement of instruc-
tion that has ever been made in the history of our country.

Hoban also expressed his opinion regarding teacher train-
ing for visual education in an address before the 1931 con-
vention of the National Education Association. It is his
contention that teacher-training institutions must assume
responsibility for the adequate preparation of teachers in
the use of visual aids.

Hoban, C. F. "Responsibility of Teacher-Training Institu-
tions for the Preparation of Teachers in the Technics of
Visual and Other Sensory Aids : Abstract." National Edu-
cation Association Proceedings. 1931 :957-9.

It is necessary that teachers know the types of visual and
other sensory aids, where to get them, how to evaluate them,
and how to use them in the instructional process.

382 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

The Pennsylvania classification of visual and other sensory
materials for teaching purposes is as follows : ( 1 ) apparatus
and equipment; (2) school journey or field lesson; (3) objects,
specimens, and models; (4) pictorial material; (5) miscellaneous
aids, such as dramatization, demonstration, exhibit, pageant,
sand table, and the like.

Schoolroom apparatus and equipment include blackboard,
bulletin board, charts, globes, maps, models, pictorial files, pro-
jectors, and various other instruments and devices necessary for
meaningful instruction. Modern educational procedure requires
that teachers know high-standard materials, the minimum ma-
terials necessary for teaching the respective subjects, the sources
from which they may be obtained, and proper methods for their
effective use. Lack of this knowledge has resulted in an
accumulation of inferior and unnecessary materials in many
school districts.

The school journey, or field trip, is one of the richest and most
practical of all educational methods. The school journey has
proved so valuable that it is used throughout Germany, Great
Britain, and Czechoslovakia. The London County Council has
subsidized such trips and the progressive European countries are
rapidly adopting them. Russia is becoming highly enthusiastic
over their value.

The use of objects, specimens, and models provides for
instruction in realistic and concrete elements. The object may
be a plant or animal brought into the classroom ; specimens may
consist of a sample of coal or cloth ; the model may be a small
representation of a building, machine, brain, or the like. Modern
schools are providing collections of such materials so that they
are immediately at hand for teachers and pupils to use. Journeys
to museums offer valuable experience with models.

Pictorial materials include textbook illustrations, post cards,
prints, stereographs, lantern slides, and motion pictures. They
appeal to the eye, attract attention, and arouse interest; but to
use pictorial materials effectively teachers must not only know
how to adapt them to the curriculum but must have standards for
their evaluation, guiding principles for their use, and a definite
technique for instructional procedure. The valuable materials
that have been and are being developed make this type of visual
aid of first importance.

TEACHER PREPARATION 383

Miscellaneous aids contribute certain definite values to in-
struction. These include dramatizations, demonstrations,
pageants, exhibits, and sand tables all of which make the pupil
an active agent. To use them successfully requires training
in their values and in the technique for their use.

Schools fall behind in the matter of attracting and holding
the interest of children because teachers are not taking advantage
of the new devices and aids in the presentation of content ma-
terial. School administrators complain of the teachers' lack
of knowledge of these values and techniques. If the quality
of instruction is to be improved, and if the objectives of edu-
cation are to be met, teachers must be provided with adequate
preparation and a profound knowledge of the philosophy that
underlies learning through the senses. The consensus of opinion
is that training in the various standards for evaluating visual
and other sensory aids and in the guiding principles and tech-
niques for their use should be part of the preparation of every
teacher in elementary, secondary, or special schools.

We must appeal to the teacher-training institutions to include
a course in visual instruction in the professional preparation
of teachers. Because of the contribution such a course makes
to meaningful instruction, because such a course fits more in-
structional and learning situations than many of the courses now
required, it ranks in my judgment next to educational psychology.
We should dedicate our efforts in the year that lies ahead toward
making a credit course in visual and other sensory aids a re-
quirement for a teacher's license in every state in the union.

The opinions of several of the educators quoted in these
pages, with respect to the necessity for teacher preparation
in visual education, were summarized by Fannie W. Dunn
in an address before the Twelfth Annual Conference of the
National Board of Review of Motion Pictures in February
1936. This address, entitled "Teaching Visual Instruction,"
was published in the March 1936 issue of the National
Board of Review Magazine.

The need for teacher preparation and a variety of pro-
cedures for meeting this need were set forth by Edgar Dale
at a recent meeting of the Department of Visual Institution

384 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

of the N.E.A. in New Orleans. These have been outlined
below.

Dale, Edgar (Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio)
"Progress in Teacher Training in the Use of Visual Aids."
Educational Screen. 16 :81-4. March 1937.

The training of teachers to use visual aids effectively may
be afforded in several ways. First, there is the training offered
by teacher-training institutions either through a separate course
(required, or elective), or through units on visual aids in special
methods courses. Another important form of teacher prepara-
tion, and one which will influence the teacher-in-training in
her own teaching techniques, is the widespread use of visual
materials by college instructors. Such use, however, should
be meaningful and integrated. When motion pictures or slides
are used in college in a careless, non-integrated fashion, the
student will reflect this attitude in her teaching career.

Each teacher-training school should provide some kind of
instruction in visual aids for the prospective teacher. It is
important, too, that the schools provide equipment and
materials to meet the needs of each teacher.

Another form of teacher education which has been much
neglected is in-service training. This may be provided through
various channels: (a) through teachers' institutes such as have
been held at state universities in Ohio; (b) through guidance
by directors of visual education in city school systems;
(c) through national, state, and regional meetings of visual
education groups, and through a discussion of the problems of
visual education by specialized professional groups, such as the
Women's Physical Education Association, and others; (d)
through committees of teachers to evaluate available films in
their special subjects; and (e) through the cooperation of class-
room teachers in the production of educational films.

A third and very important method of teacher training is
through printed materials. Here, too, the information may
be published in a magazine devoted exclusively to visual educa-
tion, such as Educational Screen, or the News Letter, published
at Ohio State University; or it may appear at frequent intervals
in the numerous subject-matter journals of the teaching profes-
sion. The information being compiled and disseminated through

TEACHER PREPARATION 385

the American Council on Education will also be invaluable to
teachers in service.

Another method of teacher training which offers a good
deal of promise, is to give graduate and undergraduate college
students an opportunity to develop special abilities in the field.
Such activities as producing independent motion pictures,
cooperating with various departments of the college in the
production of films, participating in psychological research deal-
ing with visual aids, or conducting a survey of the status of
materials and equipment provide excellent training for prospec-
tive directors of visual education.

A final type of teacher-training is furnished by courses in
motion picture appreciation. Such guidance is helpful to the
teacher-in-training, as well as to the teacher-in-service.

II. TRENDS IN TEACHER PREPARATION

Trends in visual-education guidance before 1925 have
been summarized in the article one of a series by F. Dean
McClusky. McClusky believes that the inadequacy of teacher
guidance in many city school systems may be charged to the
numerous outside duties laid upon the directors of visual
education.

McClusky, F. Dean (Director, Scarborough School, Scar-
borough-on-Hudson, New York) "Finding the Facts of
Visual Education: II. Growth Through Teacher Training."
Educational Screen. 4 :203-5, 272-6. April, May 1925.

Until teacher training in visual instruction is developed,
the market for visual aids will move slowly. Growth in visual
education depends on the training of teachers, which in turn
depends on the development of college instruction, textbooks,
and courses of study for visual instruction. Lack of under-
standing of this factor by commercial companies distributing
visual aids has caused much waste of time and effort.

There is evidence that in a few instances directors of visual
instruction in educational institutions have not been able to give
attention to the promotion of an adequate program of teacher

386 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

training. The directors of visual instruction in Berkeley, Cleve-
land, Newark, New York, Philadelphia, and Pittsburgh, were
found in a recent investigation " to have numerous outside duties
which made provision for teacher training negligible. Exten-
sion departments that have undertaken to distribute films and
slides have become aware of the need for teacher training in the
use of these aids.

Progress in teacher training was evident, however, the survey
showed. In over twenty institutions [1923] courses in visual
education were being offered, usually in the summer session;
conferences of teachers of visual instruction were being held
at the Universities of Missouri and Utah; the State Department
of Education in Michigan was giving a series of short courses
in the normal schools of the state ; a small number of city normal
schools offered similar courses ; a number of city school depart-
ments of visual education were making serious efforts to train
teachers in service in the technique of visual instruction.

Teachers may secure training in visual instruction in formal,
semiformal, and informal ways. In the formal method, instruc-
tion is gained through courses in institutions of learning; in
the semiformal, at teachers' institutes and from short courses; in
the informal, through such vicarious means as lectures or
scattered reading.

The visual-education instruction offered as formal training
comprises resident and extension courses, summer- and regular-
session courses, and prescribed, elective, and noncredit courses.
Semiformal training may be afforded by teachers' institutes,
short courses, systematically arranged conferences, a lecture
series, or methodical supervision. There is considerable oppor-
tunity to gain information by the informal method through
newspapers, radio, the theater, and advertising. Methods
usually include the reading of magazine articles, listening to
occasional lectures on visual education, observing demonstrations
of visual materials, reading books, and listening to salesmen of
commercial products in the field.

The growth of visual education is in no small degree due to
the spread of information by informal methods. The desire of
advertisers to place before school people a considerable amount of
information on visual materials has been especially influential.

11 A survey made by McClusky in 1923 for the Committee on Visual Education
of the National Education Association.

TEACHER PREPARATION 387

Informal training will not, however, develop so lasting an
interest as is gained through formal or semiformal methods.

Formal instruction. The National Academy of Visual Instruc-
tion found in 1924 that twenty-three educational institutions were
offering courses. These constitute but a small percentage of the
teacher-training institutions in the United States, but they include
some of the finest. The courses offered are all elective, not
prescribed. In three institutions they are given by correspond-
ence or in extramural classes; the majority are offered only in
the summer session.

Semiformal instruction. Semiformal programs should sup-
plement the core of formal courses. Teachers in service should
be kept informed on the subject. In Michigan, a short course
was set up in 1923 in each of the normal schools of the state
under C. J. Primm of the Michigan State Department of Public
Instruction. These courses aimed to acquaint pupil teachers
with the theory and techniques of using films in teaching; the
sources and care of films; and how to operate and care for a
motion-picture projector. The courses carried no credit, but
a certificate was awarded. There were eight lectures for each
course and six courses daily. Individual coaching in handling
projectors was provided on request and all teachers in adjacent
areas were invited to attend round-table discussions on Saturdays.

Another desirable type of semiformal training was afforded
in several instances through teachers' institutes. The directors
of visual instruction in Berkeley, Detroit, Newark, and Kansas
City have been active in organizing conferences and committees
of visual education in their respective cities.

Informal training. Information gained in this way is loose,
distorted, and undesirable. If the development of visual instruc-
tion lies in teacher training and if the way to train teachers most
rapidly is through prescribed courses, it would appear that the
establishment of such courses is fundamental. This is difficult
to accomplish, however, when the program in teacher-training
institutions is already overcrowded. "The solution does not lie
in directors of special courses, but rather in that of incorporating
into the already existing prescribed courses in methods, the
treatment of the topic visual instruction as part of those courses."
Formal courses should be continued as electives, except in the
case of students who want to become specialists.

388 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

As early as 1922 a survey was made showing the pro-
vision made at that time for teacher preparation in the use
of visual aids. The results were reported in an address by
Anna V. Dorris before the Visual Instruction Conference
of the National Education Association at Oakland, Cali-
fornia, in July 1923.

Dorris, Anna V. "The Training of Teachers for Service and
During Service in the Use of Objective and -Other Visual
Materials." Educational Screen. 2 :335-7. September 1923.

The report presents the results of a survey of the provisions
made in the United States in 1923 for the training of teachers
in the use of visual materials.

An inquiry was sent to 171 normal schools and to 114 colleges
and universities. There were thirty returns from the former
and thirty-seven from the latter. Among normal schools, four
offered regular courses in visual instruction and two offered
summer-session courses. The Michigan Normal School offered
one noncredit course. One normal school taught ''graphs" ;
another gave a course on photography and slide making.

Colleges and universities gave more attention to the distribu-
tion of slides and films than did normal schools. Seventeen of
the thirty-seven colleges and universities reported that they
maintained distribution centers. Only four normal schools
reported such service. The main use of these distributing centers,
however, appeared to be for the circulation of visual material for
entertainment purposes.

Some schools in which courses were not offered reported
using visual aids in the teaching of science and geography. One
teachers' college thought their art course would come under the
head of "visual instruction."

A number of questions arise from the findings of the survey :
is it justifiable to allow teachers already in service to go on in the
old traditional way? Shall no provision be made by teacher-
training institutions for teachers in service to learn how to use
newly installed equipment with the least expenditure of time
,and energy?

[An account of the work offered in the San Francisco State
Teachers College follows. This has been described in detail

TEACHER PREPARATION 389

elsewhere (see page 378). Briefly, it includes (a) classroom
lectures and demonstrations, and (b) field work.]

Much material had been accumulated in the Berkeley schools.
A committee was organized to prepare a handbook, 12 demonstra-
tion lessons were given before teachers, and finally a visual-
instruction center with a part-time director and an attendant
was set up.

The report of a committee on teacher training in visual
instruction submitted to the Department of Visual Instruction
of the National Education Association in 1926 suggests that
a separate laboratory course is needed for pupil teachers,
and extension courses for teachers in the field.

Ankeney, J. V. (Chairman) "Report of Committee on
Teacher Training in Visual Instruction." Educational Screen.
5:489-91. October 1926.

A survey made in 1925-26 showed that several institutions
were offering teacher-training courses, with the University of
Wisconsin assigning a professorship to the subject.

Visual education is concerned with two well-defined problems :
(a) that dealing with the selection and construction of visual
aids; (b) that dealing with correct or better methods of using
aids. The question of how these problems may be approached
is controversial. Should visual education be introduced in
courses in other subjects, such as geography education, history
education, and the like, with no additional staff but with proper
correlation with the subject under consideration? Or should
visual education be presented in a separate course, given by a
specially trained instructor ?

The arguments for the latter view are : ( 1 ) Not all teachers
of special methods have had experience in training student
teachers in the use of visual aids. (2) Special methods courses
are overcrowded and leave little time for ample consideration
of visual instruction. (3) Teachers in service are in need of
supplementary training for that subject. (4) Visual instruction
needs one person responsible for training in methods and ma-
terials, or little will be accomplished. (5) Separate courses are

12 Visual Instruction. Course of Study Monographs. Public Schools, Berkeley
California. 1923.

390 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

temporarily justified to develop an awareness of the need for
visual aids properly used.

Skill in the use of visual aids may be developed by demonstra-
tion lessons given under actual teaching conditions to "set a
pattern," followed by a discussion as to why this procedure
was used, and finally by practice teaching under supervision
using visual aids and follow-up discussion. This last step,
involving actual participation, is most desirable ; "reading about"
or "talking about" the use of visual aids will not quickly modify
practices of young inexperienced teachers.

In-service teachers may be assisted by summer-session
courses, such as a separate course in materials and methods;
a special methods course; a teachers' institute, or round-table
demonstration and discussion. Helpful, also is supervisory
assistance whereby demonstrations and illustrated source lists
and bibliographies are made available.

Proceeding to more recent judgments on the problem of
teacher preparation, we note that the State of New Jersey
has shown interest in the question, although it has not as
yet made courses in visual education compulsory as did its
neighbor state, Pennsylvania. The New Jersey Visual Edu-
cation Association, part of the State Teachers' Association,
publishes the proceedings of its annual meetings. In the
bulletin for the 1935 meeting, there were two addresses
regarding the need for teacher guidance in the use of visual
aids. Crawford favors the view that unless a teacher has
been trained to observe intelligently through field trips,
laboratory courses, pictorial aids, and the like, she cannot
be expected to teach children to do so. The responsibility
for her training, Crawford feels, rests with normal schools.

Winchell likewise deplores the failure on the part of
teacher-training institutions to offer visual-education prepara-
tion. He urges that school administrators encourage teachers
in service to enrich their backgrounds by taking special
methods courses.

TEACHER PREPARATION 391

Crawford, E. Winifred (Director of Visual Education,
Montclair, New Jersey) "Some Significant Values of Visual
Education in the Training of Teachers." New Jersey Visual
Education Association. 1 :17-19. November 1935.

One thing needed by young people who are preparing them-
selves for teaching is a feeling for life a ' 'precious seeing."
It is easy to look, to touch, to hear, to let one's senses be casually
conscious of what comes to them. To look deeper, to be silent,
to compare, to think so that values, causal relationships, interpre-
tations, and appreciations are realized to an increasing extent,
is the precious seeing that knowledge adds to the eye and other
sensory organs. It is this that visual education in its broadest
aspects unfolds to students who are trying to have seeing eyes,
listening ears, and sensitive touch.

The field trip, the laboratory, the drama, the pictorial aid,
the symbolic aid all offer opportunity for seeing and interpreting
the more significant values of life.

Courses in visual education in an institution for teacher
training aim to open to the student teacher this door to sincere
thinking and deep feeling so that they may do the same for their
future pupils. When this purpose in the use of visual and other
sensory aids is felt, the student will be eager to investigate
the technical side. The findings of research studies are
accordingly considered and a study is made of the significant
value of each of the aids and of the sources from which it may
be obtained. Methods of selection, standards of evaluation, and
principles underlying the use of aids in relation to units of
work, creative activities, school subjects, clubs, and assemblies,
are tentatively formulated. The students will be anxious to
know how to use the field trip, the laboratory, dramatics, plastics ;
they will wish to take still and motion pictures; to make slides,
properties, and many other aids ; to operate and care for
stereopticon, film slide, opaque, and silent and sound motion-
picture projectors.

A study of the photoplay is being included in the curriculum
or club activities of an ever increasing number of high schools.
Visual education, in conjunction with English and art, can help
student teachers to evaluate and interpret the photoplay for
themselves and teach them how to approach the subject with
high-school groups.

392 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Winchell, Lawrence R. (Superintendent of Schools, Vine-
land, New Jersey) "The Need of Teacher Training in Visual
Education." New Jersey Visual Education Association. 1 :
15-16. November 1935.

If visual instruction is to keep pace with the modern school
program, we must provide opportunities for teachers who seek
to improve their techniques in this field. Our normal schools
and colleges have recognized the fact that teachers should be
trained in the proper use of subject matter and textbooks, but
practically nothing is being done to train teachers in the proper
use of tools such as objective materials and projection apparatus.
In a nation-wide survey of visual equipment, it was found that
in some instances this apparatus stands idle and dusty from
lack of use. The condition will not be remedied until the average
teacher in service has an opportunity to learn of the newer and
better methods of teaching. Ways and means must be provided
by administrators and supervisors for teachers to take special
courses in methods of using visual aids.

It will readily be agreed that a course in visual education
should deal primarily with the actual technique of using visual
aids in the various phases of teaching and in the various school
subjects of the elementary and secondary schools. By technique
is meant pedagogical, not mechanical, technique. Attention
should be given in any course to the mechanics of visual instruc-
tion, but it is scarcely necessary for every teacher to know how
to manipulate a motion-picture machine. Every teacher should,
however, know how to handle a classroom stereopticon and
should know enough of the laws of optics and electricity to be
able to meet emergencies.

E. E. Macy, in a recent article, reiterates the need for
teacher preparation. He advises teachers to educate their
administrators, and administrators to educate school boards.
School boards, in turn, should convince the taxpayers that
skilled teachers, aided by adequate equipment and materials,
will make the educational process worth while.

TEACHER PREPARATION 393

Macy, E. E. (Director of Visual Education, Indian School,
Warm Springs, Oregon) "Training in Visual Education."
School Executive. 54:206-7. March 1935.

Are teachers properly trained to use visual aids intelligently?

In a recent investigation in Chicago, an average gain in
achievement of 24 per cent was shown as a direct result of the
use of visual aids. The development of visual education is
often hindered, however, by enthusiastic but unintelligent use
of visual aids by teachers who are unfamiliar with the proper
use of such equipment. Such misuse will not be of much benefit
to the pupil. Then there are those teachers who do not even
seem interested in visual aids and make no attempt to correlate
them with classroom work. The best results in visual educa-
tion will be attained through the intelligent use of visual aids
in the classroom and through the intelligent selection of proper
type of material.

Among the causes of difficulty for teachers are lack of
training in music and dramatics, dearth of teaching materials,
and training in passive rather than dynamic methods of organiza-
tion. Teachers who want to be successful and progressive
should master a wide range of visual aids, should use them
naturally, let the individual pupils select vital points, provide
for reciprocal pupil effort, cultivate an open mind, note uses
of aids in other lines, and lead pupils to note values of different
aids.

Some desirable topics for teacher training are the following:
field trips; diagrams; maps; display racks; scrapbooks; bulletin
boards; magazines; newspapers; construction; collections;
replicas, models; relics; specimens; objects; statuary; phantoms;
local history; clubs; pageants; special days; dramatizations;
pioneer clubs; posters; charts; graphs; types of equipment;
exhibits; cartoons; congresses; library; blackboards; stereo-
graphs; chalk skill; museums; motion-picture cameras; 16 mm.
and 35 mm. projectors; slides; film-slide and opaque projectors;
micro-cinematography; samples; sources of free materials; day-
light projection; screens; films silent, sound, and still; home-
made slides cellophane, typed, glass, and film; mechanics of
projection lenses, mirrors, electrical devices.

Progressive teachers should educate their administrators,
school boards, and others, to the need for teacher training in
visual education; administrators should educate teachers, pupils,

394 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

and school boards to the point where they will demand teacher
training. Taxpayers should also require this training in the
school systems.

At a spring conference of the Visual Aids Section of
the California Teachers' Association, it was decided that a
promotional program for teacher training should be planned.
The abstract which follows describes the plan in full.

White, Margaret S. (Pasadena) and Irion, Mary Clint (Los

Angeles) "News Briefs from California." Educational
Screen. 11:143. May 1932.

The Visual Aids Section of the California Teachers' Asso-
ciation, Southern Section, adopted a program of teacher training
as its main objective at the spring conference in 1931. The
development of the program has been put in the hands of a com-
mittee known as the Committee on Teacher Training of the
Visual Aids Section, California Teachers' Association, with Mary
Clint Irion as chairman.

The committee decided upon certain preliminary procedures.
These were:

1. To ascertain from deans of education, presidents of teach-
ers' colleges, and other administrators, just what is being done
throughout the United States, and in California in particular, to
train teachers in this field. The following questions were to be
asked by letter or interview :

Is any training given in the use of visual aids to your
teachers in training, or through extension courses to
teachers, supervisors, and administrators in service?

If so, does this training pertain to the pedagogical appli-
cation of the various types of aids, or does it refer to
mechanical problems, or both ?

If you have any such courses, will you send us a copy of
the syllabus of the course?

Do you expect to do anything further than you are now
doing in this field ?

Is it your belief that any further training than teachers
now have is necessary ?

2. To secure through personal interviews the advice and
cooperation of the educational leaders close at hand.

TEACHER PREPARATION 395

3. To submit to the various publications in the field accounts
of successful experience in the use of visual tools and articles
of interest regarding the work of the committee.

4. To prepare a bibliography of visual aids for the use of
instructors in teacher-training institutions who might wish to
inform themselves more fully in this field.

5. To consider the preparation of a handbook on visual
aids.

6. If the results of our survey so justify, to present to the
State Board of Education a plea for the inclusion of training in
the use of visual aids in the curricula of California teachers'
colleges.

7. To be prepared to furnish definite help to teacher-training
institutions on request.

The outstanding need for teacher preparation in the use
of visual aids was pointed out in a survey conducted by the
American Nature Association in 1930. It was then noted
that although visual aids are used universally and although
many teacher-training institutions possess projection equip-
ment, there is no provision for the training of teachers of
nature study in handling this equipment.

McNall, Jessie J. (New York State Normal School, Potsdam,
New York) "Study of Content and Organization of Ma-
terials Offered in Teacher-Training Institutions Together
With An Examination of Methods Used in Visual Educa-
tion." Nature Almanac. 1930:132. American Nature Asso-
ciation.

This study of the content of courses offered in normal schools
and teachers' colleges in nature study or elementary science
covered subject matter, manner of presentation, and equipment
used in class work. It was thought that a survey of the physical
equipment available for use in teacher-training institutions might
throw some light on activities in progress in nature education.

Replies were received from 108 institutions, representing all
the states except Alabama, Arizona, Colorado, Delaware, Missis-
sippi, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, New Hampshire, Utah,
Vermont, and Wyoming.

396 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Number of Schools
Type of Visual Aid Equipped

Lantern slides 65

Motion-picture equipment 35

Photographic equipment 28

Models and model-making equipment .... 27

Reflectoscopes 23

Stereographs 17

Sound-film equipment

Fresh living things seemed to be most commonly used as
equipment in nature study. Charts, pictures, preserved material,
and slides were all used to an equal extent. There seemed to
be comparatively little teaching in this field without visual aids.
This may account for the fact that one nature teacher, who
claimed to be "naturally gifted with the ability to speak" and
who testified that he relied essentially upon this ability to suc-
ceed, is no longer on the teaching staff of which he was once a
prominent member.

Ten schools reported that all their graduates were trained in
the use of a stereopticon. It appears that few teachers are as
yet trained in the use of the machines that promise to do so
much to revolutionize educational method. Very few, apparently,
are taught anything about the operation and care of the 16 mm.
motion-picture equipment that is becoming so popular and is so
splendidly supported by useful educational films.

In all fairness, however, it should be stated that there
are many educational institutions offering courses for teach-
ers in the use of visual aids. The list which follows gives
ample evidence of the extent to which such courses are to
be offered during the summer of 1937.

TEACHER PREPARATION

397

"Summer Courses in Visual Instruction." Educational Screen.

16:152-3. May 1937.

INSTITUTION

Alabama

Alabama Polytech-
nic Institute
(Auburn)

California

Univ. of So. Calif.
(Los Angeles)

State College (San
Francisco)

Colorado

State College of
Education (Gree-
ley)

Univ. of Colorado
(Boulder)

Univ. of Denver
(Denver)

Florida

Univ. of Florida
(Gainesville)

Georgia

Univ. of Georgia
(Athens)

Illinois

Northwestern Univ.
(Evanston)

State Normal Univ.
(Normal)

Univ. of Illinois
(Urbana)

Indiana
Purdue Univ.
fayette)

Iowa

Iowa State College
(Ames)

COURSE

Visual Instruction

INSTRUCTOR
M. L. Beck

Fundamentals of Motion-
Picture Production and B. V. Morkovin

Motion-Picture Story and

Continuity
Social Psychological As- M. Metfessel

pects of Motion Pictures
Audio- Visual Education Sarah Muller

Methods of Teaching the Sarah Mullen

Use and Appreciation of

Educational Films and

Radio Programs
Photography S. Morse

Visual Aids in Education Helen Davis

Visual Aids Lelia Trolinger

Education Through Motion Lelia Trolinger

Pictures

Visual and Auditory Aids E. H. Herrington

Visual Education

W. L. Goette

Visual Aids in Education T. R. Wright

Visual Aids and Radio in Paul C. Reed
Education

Visual Education

C. L. Cross

Visual and Auditory In- Louis Astell
structional Aids

(La- Visual Education

H. A. Henderson

L e c t u r e Discussions on H. L. Kooser
Visual Aids

398

MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

INSTITUTION
Kansas

Univ. of Kansas
(Lawrence)

Univ. of Wichita
(Wichita)

Kentucky

Univ. of Kentucky
(Lexington)

Maryland

Univ. of Maryland
(College Park)

Massachusetts
State Teachers Col-
lege (Fitchburg)

Minnesota
State T. C. (Moor-
head)

State T. C. (Win-
ona)

Missouri

Teachers College
(Kansas City)

New Jersey

State Teachers Col-
lege (Montclair)

State Normal Col-
lege (Trenton)

Rutgers University
(New Bruns-
wick)

New York
New York Univ.
(N.Y.C)

Teachers College,
Columbia Univ.
(N.Y.C.)

Chautauqua Sum-
mer Schools
( Chautauqua)

COURSE

INSTRUCTOR

Visual Education in Ele- Fred Montgomery
mentary and Secondary
Schools

Visual Sensory Aids in w - A - Bonwell
Teaching

Visual Instruction

Visual Education

Louis Clifton

Henry Brechbill

Visual Aids in Education C. W. Erickson

Supervision Through Vis- C. P. Archer
ual Aids

Visual Instruction

Ella C. Clark

Methods in the Use of Vis- Rupert Peters
ual Aids

Visual Instruction
Visual Instruction
Visual Instruction

Visual and Auditory Mate-
rials in the Social Studies

Laboratory Course in Vis-
ual Aids

Practical Applications of
Visual Aids

Materials and Methods in
Visual and Auditory Edu-
cation

and

Research in Visual and
Auditory Education

Laboratory Course in Vis-
ual Aids

E. W. Crawford
Geo. W. Wright
L. R. Winchell

D. C. Knowlton
John Shaver
John Shaver

Fannie W. Dunn
V. C. Arnspiger
C. M. Koon

Fannie W. Dunn
V. C. Arnspiger
C. M. Koon

G. H. O'Donnell

TEACHER PREPARATION 399

COURSE INSTRUCTOR

Edgar Dale

INSTITUTION
Ohio

Ohio State Univ. Visual Aids
(Columbus)

Western Reserve Institute of Visual Educa- W. M. Gregory

Univ.
land)

(Cleve- tion

and others

Oklahoma

A. & M. College Visual Education J. C. Muerman

(Stillwater)

Texas

Univ. of Texas The Use of Visual Aids in B. F. Holland
(Austin) Education

Wisconsin

State Teachers Col- Visual Instruction
lege (Platteville)

State T. C. (Stev- Visual Education
ens)

Stout Institute Visual Instruction
(Menomonie)

Univ. of Wiscon-
sin (Madison)

Visual Instruction

V. M. Russell
C. D. Jayne
Paul Nelson
J. E. Hansen

Univ. of Wyoming Radio and Visual Educa- Cline M. Koon
(Laramie) tion

400

MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Pennsylvania

The following teacher-training institutions will give courses in Visual
Education. As complete information was not available ... we present
only a partial list of instructors. . . .

Albright College (Reading)
Allegheny College (Meadville)
Beaver College (Jenkintown) (J.

E. Malin)

Bucknell University (Lewisburg)
College Misericordia (Dallas)
Drexel Institute (Philadelphia)

(Mr. Galphin)

Elizabethtown College (Elizabeth-
town) (E. Wenger)
Geneva College (Beaver Falls)
Gettysburg College (Gettysburg)
Grove City College (Grove City)
Immaculata College (Immacu-

lata)
Juanita College (Huntington)

(Paul Rummel)

LaSalle College (Philadelphia)
Lehigh University (Bethlehem)
Mary wood College (Scranton)

(S. M. Sylvia)
Mercyhurst College (Erie)
Muhlenberg College (Allentown)

(H. E. Miller)
Pennsylvania State College (State

College) (H. E. Thompson

and J. G. Sigman)
Rosemont College (Rosemont)
Seton Hill College (Greensburg)

St. Thomas College (Scranton)
Susquehanna Univ. (Selinsgrove)
Temple Univ. (Philadelphia) (J.

T. Garman)

Thiel College (Greenville)
Univ. of Pennsylvania (Phila.)
Univ. of Pittsburgh (Pittsburgh)

(E. E. Sechreist)
Villa Maria College (Erie)
Villanova College (Villanova)
Washington & Jefferson College

(Washington)

Waynesburg College (Waynes-
burg) (C. O. Riggs)

State Teachers Colleges at:
Bloomsburg
California
Clarion

East Stroudsburg
Edinboro

Indiana (W. E. Emmert)
Kutztown
Lock Haven
Mansfield
Millersville
Shippensburg
Slippery Rock
West Chester
Cheyney Training School

Further evidence of trends in the visual-education move-
ment among teachers may be drawn from the News Notes
printed in the Educational Screen during 1935. The list
given here is not intended to be complete, but merely indica-
tive of trends.

THE MASSACHUSETTS BRANCH OF THE DEPARTMENT OF
VISUAL INSTRUCTION PRESENTS ANNUAL PROGRAM. (14:15.
January 1935)

TEXAS STATE VISUAL SECTION MEETS. The Visual Instruc-
tion Section of the Texas State Teachers Association held its
regular annual meeting at Galveston, November 29-December
1, 1934. (14:14. January 1935)

WINTER MEETING NEXT MONTH. The Department of Super-
intendence meets in Atlantic City during the latter part of
February and the Department of Visual Instruction has

TEACHER PREPARATION 401

selected February 25 and 26 as the dates for its sessions.
(14:14. January 1935)

SUMMER MEETING OF THE DEPARTMENT. The sessions of the
Department of Visual Instruction of the National Education
Association will be held in the Auditorium of the Women's
Club July 1st and 2nd. (14:132. May 1935)
CHICAGO BRANCH SPRING MEETING. The Metropolitan-
Chicago Visual Education Association held its spring meeting
Saturday, April 13th. (14:132. May 1935)
MEETING OF THE DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL INSTRUCTION,
DENVER, July 1-2, 1935. (14:163. June 1935)
ANNUAL SPRING MEETING OF NEW JERSEY GROUP. The New
Jersey Visual Education Association exhibit and demonstra-
tion. . . Friday evening, May 24th, attracted visitors from far
and near. (14:163. June 1935)

WORLD EDUCATORS RECOGNIZE FILM VALUES. The World
Federation of Education Associations, meeting in Oxford
the past month, attracted 2,000 foreign educators. . . . Visual
Education came in for a large share of consideration. (14:
189. September 1935)

ILLINOIS TEACHERS HOLD FILM CONFERENCE. (14:189.
September 1935)

VISUAL EDUCATION ON NATIONAL ASSOCIATION PROGRAM.
The thirty-second annual meeting of the National Association
of Teachers in Colored Schools, held July 30-August 2 at
Tallahassee, Florida, included . . . two afternoon programs
by the Department of Visual Instruction. (14:189. Septem-
ber 1935)

MASSACHUSETTS VISUAL EDUCATION ROUND TABLE. "Visual
Aids in Education" was selected as one of the major topics
of this year's conference of the State Teachers Colleges and
Teacher Training Schools of Massachusetts at Bridgewater
September 4, 5, and 6. ( 14 :190. September 1935)
INDIANA AND OHIO VISUAL MEETINGS. The half-day session
of the Visual Instruction Section of the Indiana State Teach-
ers Association, held in Indianapolis on October 17, attracted
a large attendance.

THE CENTRAL OHIO TEACHERS ASSOCIATION met for their
Sixty-Sixth Annual conference in Dayton, Friday and
Saturday, October 25th and 26th. (14:264. November 1935)
MATERIAL FOR MOTION PICTURE APPRECIATION COURSES.
The University of Southern California, Columbia University
Teachers College, New York University, Colorado State
Teachers College are among the score of universities that
have already successfully instituted these courses. (14:272.
November 1935)

402 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

III. How CAN TEACHERS IN SERVICE BE TRAINED
OR GUIDED IN THE USE OF VISUAL AIDS?

A. By In-Service Teacher-Training Projects, Extension

Courses, and Institutes

The following references might be consulted for a descrip-
tion of this type of teacher guidance:

"A Conference on Teacher Training in Visual Instruction."
American Council on Education. Washington, D.C. 1936.
mimeo. The proceedings of a conference sponsored jointly
by the University of Wisconsin and the American Council on
Education, with Edgar Dale as chairman, November 5, 1936.

"Teacher Training in Modern Teaching Aids/' American
Council on Education. Washington, D.C. 1937. mimeo.
The report of a conference sponsored jointly by Fannie W.
Dunn of Teachers College, Columbia University, and the
American Council on Education, with Charles Hoban as
chairman, January 18, 1937.

Brunstetter, M. R. The Organization of an Audio-visual In-
struction Program. Erpi Picture Consultants, Inc. New
York. 1934.

A plan proposed for the use of educational talking pictures
in the Derry Township Schools, Hershey, Pennsylvania.

Dorris, Anna V. Visual instruction in the public school. Ginn
and Company. Boston. 1928. (See page 376)

McClusky, F. Dean. "Finding the Facts of Visual Education:
Growth Through Teacher Training." Educational Screen.
4 :203, 272. April, May 1925. (See page 385)

"New Approaches to Education Through Materials of Instruc-
tion." Subcommittee on Teacher Education, Committee on
Motion Pictures in Education, American Council on Educa-
tion. 1937. mimeo.

"Program for Peoria County Institute on Visual Education."
Educational Screen. 2:117. March 1923.

"Teachers' Institute on Visual Education." By One Who
Was There. Educational Screen. 2:31. March 1923.

B. By Special Monographs or Handbooks

Aughinbaugh, B. A. Descriptive Catalog of Slides and Films.
State Department of Education, Columbus, Ohio. 1935.
p. 91-104.

TEACHER PREPARATION 403

Aughinbaugh, B. A. Visual Instruction Bulletin. State Depart-
ment of Education. Columbus, Ohio. 1926.

Committee on Visual Aids in Education. Report on Visual
Aids in Education. Department of Education. Belmont,
Mass. 1934. 24 p. mimeo.

"Course of Study in Visual Education." Board of Education.
Detroit, Michigan. 1926.

Dale, E. and Ramseyer, L. L. Teaching with Motion Pictures :
A Handbook of Administrative Practice. American Council
on Education. Washington, D.C. April 1937.

Dent, Ellsworth C. Audio-visual Handbook. Society for
Visual Education. Chicago. 1937. rev. ed.

Dorris, Anna V. (Chairman) Visual Instruction: Course of
Study for the Elementary Schools, Including Kindergarten
and First Six Grades. (Course of Study Monographs, No. 7)
Elementary Schools. Berkeley, California. 1923.

Dunn, F. W. and Schneider, Etta. "Activities of State Visual
Education Agencies in the United States." Educational
Screen. 14:99-100, 126-7, 158-61. April, May, June 1935.

Gilbert, A. E. A Preliminary Handbook of Visual Instruction.
Board of Education. Schenectady, New York. 1927.

"Handbook for the Use of Visual Aids in Elementary and Jun-
ior-Senior High Schools." (Bulletin No. 18) Board of
Education. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 1929.

Hansen, J. E. Visual Instruction in Our Schools : A Handbook
for Teachers, Principals, and Superintendents. Bureau of
Visual Instruction, University Extension Division, University
of Wisconsin. Madison (no date). 19 p. mimeo.

Hays, Dudley G. and McAndrew, William. Suggestions on
Visual Aids for Principals and Teachers. Board of Educa-
tion. Chicago, Illinois. 1924.

"Types of Visual Aids and Projectors for Classroom Use."
(Superintendent's Bulletin, Course of Study Series, No. 127)
Oakland Public Schools. Oakland, California. 1930.

Visual Aids Division, Committee on Educational Progress,
New York State Association of Elementary Principals.
Visual Aids in the Schools : A Report of Present Uses and
Suggestions for Improvement (1935). Apply to R. W.
Thompson, Conkling School. Utica, New York.

Unzicker, Samuel J. (Chairman) Visual Education Com-
mittee, Wisconsin Education Association. Visual Education :
Report to the 1935 Representative Assembly.

"Visual Education : Object-Specimen-Model and a Black-
board Technique." (Educational Monograph, No. 8)
Pennsylvania Department of Public Instruction. Harrisburg.
1929.

404 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

"Visual Education and the School Journey." (Educational
Monograph, No. 6) Pennsylvania Department of Public
Instruction. Harrisburg. 1930.

Handbooks which accompany educational motion pic-
tures provide valuable material for directing teachers in the
proper use of the films. A discussion of the effectiveness
of this type of guidance is found in the article by J. A.
Lauwerys, lecturer and tutor in the Institute of Education
at the University of London, entitled "How to Use Class-
room Films: Handbooks to Aid Teachers." Sight and
Sound. 4:190. Winter 1935-36.

C. By Suggestions Incorporated in Elementary or Secondary
Courses of Study

The most logical place for guidance in the use of visual
aids would appear to be the course of study for each school
subject. Visual aids are not to be used separately but as an
integral part of the classroom work.

The California State program for elementary science
instruction provides for a Committee on Visual Aids in
Education to formulate a definite visual aid program, and a
Planning Committee which, among other duties, coordinates
the use of visual aids and the science program. 13

The extent to which current courses of study in geog-
raphy provide teacher guidance in the use of pictures or
other illustrative material has been carefully analyzed by
Beutel in her master's thesis. It is interesting to note that
several of the state courses of study that fail to mention
sources of illustrative materials are issued by states maintain-
ing a central library of films and slides in the state univer-
sity. 34

18 Pickwell, Gayle. "Visual Aids and the Science Program in California."
Visual Review. 1937:10-14.

14 For a list of states having a department of visual instruction, see Koon, C. M.
Sources of Educational Films and Equipment (Circular ISO). United States Office
of Education. Washington, D.C. 1936.

TEACHER PREPARATION 405

Beutel, Lucille Ethel. "Guidance for Teachers in the Use of
Pictures Afforded in Courses of Study in Geography." M. A.
Thesis, University of Chicago. 1932 (Unpublished)

Purpose of the study: To extract from representative
current courses of study in geography all material concerned with
pictures and their use and to analyze it to discover ( 1 ) the various
phases of guidance for teachers in the selection and use of pic-
tures, (2) the relative emphases on such phases of guidance as
were found, (3) any tendencies discernible in the courses in the
distribution of emphasis on various phases of guidance, and
(4) insofar as standards for judging values were available, the
relative value of different types of suggestions given.

Ninety-nine courses of study in geography were used in the
investigation. Included in this total were forty-five state courses
and fifty- four courses published by cities and towns. All the
states in the Union from which a geography course of study
was available were represented, with the exception of Rhode
Island, Ohio, and South Dakota; also represented were cities
from nearly all sections of the country with populations ranging
from less than ten thousand to over one million. All courses of
study published within the last ten years were examined. Courses
found to offer a great deal of guidance in the use of pictures
were Baltimore, Boston, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Lakewood
(Ohio), Springfield (Missouri), Trenton, and Wichita.

The courses of study were analyzed for the following types of
guidance: Were teachers afforded any bases for selection of
illustrative material, such as geographical quality, mechanical
quality, or fitness for unit? What kinds of illustrative materials
were mentioned; e.g., pictures, stereographs, slides, or moving
pictures? What type of objectives were offered for using these
materials; e.g., enrichment, or the development of general abilities
and attitudes, or the development of specific picture-reading and
evaluating abilities? What types of teaching procedures were
mentioned, such as handling, general directions for use, the pur-
pose or place of use, or specific aid in use? What suggestions
were offered regarding pupil activities with pictures, such as col-
lecting and filing, general activities, or specific activities? Were
specific or general sources given and how did state courses of
study vary in this respect from city courses? Were the sugges-
tions for use of pictures distinctively geographic in nature, or
were they generally applicable?

406 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

The figures for the above-mentioned aspects have been given
in a series of tables. Following is Table II, which gives the
percentage of all comments relating to the six major types of
guidance.

Types of Guidance

City
Courses

State
Courses

~ All
Courses

1

Bases for selection

16

1

1 7

2

Kinds

31 5

125

440

3.

Objectives ,

... 3.1

2.1

5.2

4.

Teaching procedures

, . . 9.7

2.3

12.0

5

Pupil activities

15.9

84

24.3

6

Sources

107

21

12.8

72.5

~Z?l

100.0

Significant facts to be noted from this table are the following :

1. Comments on picture guidance in the fifty- four city
courses are more than 2.6 times as numerous as are such com-
ments in the forty-five state courses.

2. In the city courses, state courses, and all courses ex-
amined, bases for selection receive least comment, kinds receive
most comment, and pupil activities next most.

3. Comments on teaching procedure rank third in percentage
in the state courses and fourth in city courses; those on
objectives, fourth in state courses and fifth in city courses;
and those on sources, fifth in state courses and third in city
courses.

4. In view of the fact that comments classified under kinds
were those that merely named general types of illustrative ma-
terial without giving any indication of why, when, and how they
should be used, it would seem that chief emphasis is being
directed to a phase which does not warrant so large a proportion
of attention.

5. In making comparisons of number and percentage of
comments of each type, one should realize that adequate emphasis
upon bases of selection, objectives, and general kinds of guidance
would require, in all, fewer comments than would adequate
emphasis on specific pupil activities, teaching procedures, and
sources. Measured in this way, the relatively small emphasis
on objectives and bases for selection may be adequate.

TEACHER PREPARATION 407

The following general conclusion can be drawn from the
study :

1. Material designed to afford guidance in the selection and
use of pictures is found in current geography courses in amounts
which suggest that the makers of these courses consider it an
important type of guidance.

2. Much of the guidance is, however, of a type of relatively
little value to teachers because it is too general and nondistinc-
tive; that is, it does not bear concretely on the specific theme
of teaching geography and puts too much stress on merely naming
kinds of pictures that almost every teacher knows and too little
stress on specific objectives, bases for selection, and particular
types of teacher and pupil performance.

3. Cities, especially those in the northeast and north central
parts, are beginning to center attention on the more valuable
phases of guidance.

4. Since the one course that gives the most guidance of the
better type (Baltimore) was published in 1931, and since most
of the courses that afford adequate guidance were published
in the second half of the decade in which all courses analyzed
were published, it seems that the tendency is in the direction of
affording better guidance.

5. In improving geography courses with respect to guidance
in the selection and use of pictures, it would be well to emphasize
to a greater extent the six specific types of guidance discussed
and to devote little if any space to those numerous comments
which, taken together, say no more than: "Use pictures of all
available kinds well and teach children how to use them."

D. By Supervisory Help

The recent publication by Brunstetter contains some very
concrete suggestions for developing and maintaining an in-
service training program for teachers. The role of the super-
visor in this connection is well emphasized. A summary of
these suggestions is here given.

Crawford's report serves to illustrate the role of the
director of visual education in supervising teacher training.
The two reports supplement each other admirably.

408 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

One supervisor's procedure with teachers is described by
Torrence.

Brunstetter, M. R. "How to Train Teachers in the Use of
Sound Films." In How to Use the Educational Sound Film.
University of Chicago Press. Chicago. 1937. p. 96-113.

One reason for teachers' inefficiency in using audio-visual
materials of instruction is the lack of professional courses in
this field in teacher-training institutions. The partial list of
courses published in the May, 1936, issue of Educational Screen
testifies to this fact. In progressive departments of visual edu-
cation, a program of in-service training is provided through the
cooperation of the director of visual education by (a) planning
with the teachers and pupils, (b) visiting the teachers, (c) hold-
ing meetings, (d) giving demonstration lessons, (e) issuing
bulletins, (f) compiling lists of sources, and (g) making ma-
terials available. The routine of the department might be left
with the secretary-clerk, allowing the director to spend time in
supervisory contacts. Training in the use of visual materials
may be regarded as a form of professional growth and advance-
ment, comparable to that which teachers receive from
participating in a program of curriculum revision.

Desirable outcomes for a training program. The scope and
direction of a program for developing skill in the use of audio-
visual materials is necessarily determined by the goals to be
achieved. One goal may be improvement in technique; another
may be a knowledge of the fundamental principles underlying
the effective use of the sound film; a third may be the knowledge
of specific film-teaching methods which have proved effective;
a fourth may be the habit of creative experimentation with film-
teaching methods and procedures ; and a fifth may be a knowledge
of the available films in the local library and their application to
the subjects taught in the local courses of study.

An in-service training course. One way to develop film-
teaching ability is through a special course, including the theory
of film teaching and its practical application in the classroom.
Such a course has the advantage of focusing the teacher's atten-
tion from the beginning upon proper techniques of use. It is
superior to the trial-and-error method by which even the good
teacher can attain skill only gradually. It is much faster and
more stimulating than the "infiltration" method of working with

TEACHER PREPARATION 409

individuals in supervisory conferences, which at best requires
considerable time to reach every teacher.

In answer to the objection that such a course will be adding
still another load to the teacher's overcrowded schedule, the
statement is made that the teacher who is content to plod along
without refreshing his point of view occasionally with new
perspectives is in danger of professional stagnation. Alert
teachers are continually upon the outlook for opportunities to
develop their grasp of educational principles and to improve the
efficiency of their classroom methods.

For many school systems, such a course can be provided
in the extension department of a teachers' college near by. The
instructor of such a course, however, should know the curriculum,
should have a grasp of instructional problems, and should be
familiar with the application of audio-visual devices in specific
areas of learning.

A. Suggested content for the training course

I. Appreciation of the sound film as an instructional aid
Characteristics of the educational sound film;
complementary relationship to other instructional
aids; application to various subject-matter fields

II. Standards for educational sound films

How to rate films; suggestive list of standards

III. Integrating sound films with courses of study

Advantages of integration of the film in achieving
the objectives of the course; method of writing
sound films into courses of study

IV. Techniques of teaching with sound films

Planning the use of the sound film; introducing
each showing of the film ; guiding learning activities
after the film showing

V. Operation of 16 mm. sound-film equipment

There has been a tendency in some courses in visual
education to stress the physical and mechanical
aspects. There is no question of their importance,
but the educational aspects of the use of the film
overshadows the mechanical. Training, however,
should include a knowledge of the units of the pro-
jector, how to prepare a classroom for projection,
and how to operate the projector.

410 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

B. Teaching the training course

The method for the training course should be the
laboratory-demonstration-discussion type, an approach
which is ideally adapted to the nature and functions of
the devices being studied. Lectures should be amply
illustrated with films.

C. Related training activities

The practical application of the theories developed in
the training class may be made through experimental
film lessons initiated by individual teachers and dis-
cussed before the group. Another type of activity is the
integration of films in a curriculum-revision program.

D. Reference materials

There should be made available: books, monographs,
and pamphlets descriptive of types of instructional ma-
terials and their selection for specific teaching situations ;
studies evaluating the effectiveness of the sound films;
monographs describing programs ; superior courses of
study illustrating the integration of materials of instruc-
tion; reports dealing with film-teaching techniques; out-
standing film-lesson plans in mimeographed form ; syllabi
for training teachers; periodicals in visual instruction;
film catalogs and lists of sources; teachers' manuals
accompanying the films in the local film library.

Special training for principals. Principals as well as teachers
will profit by intensive study of the various aspects of audio-
visual instruction. Their contacts with the film program are
both administrative and supervisory. For the latter it is im-
portant that they participate in the same preliminary training
as the teachers, as a foundation for their supervisory service
in assisting the teachers to plan film uses and to evaluate the
worth of film-teaching techniques. The principal's function
as a supervisor is not that of operating the projector for teachers
timid about mechanical things; he should be an educational
consultant upon which the teacher relies for perspective and
suggestions regarding instructional problems and methods.

The efficient administration of the film program, in so far as
it devolves upon the principals, may be developed through a series
of conferences in which the principals meet with the superinten-
dent, or the individual directing the program, to map out desirable
routines or to suggest modifications of the administrative pro-
cedure which seem desirable.

TEACHER PREPARATION 411

Supervision of film teaching. This is probably the most
important means of insuring the development of skill in teaching
with films. The initial basic training serves to give teachers
a background of knowledge and understanding of the film
medium, but supervision guides them as they grow in the ability
to utilize the film in the classroom. The supervisor should be
a person able to lead, to detect omissions and faulty methods,
and to suggest desirable changes in approach and technique.
This means that the person supervising should know more about
film teaching than the teacher, should have a background of
appreciation into which instructional materials and devices have
been oriented with respect to the whole process of teaching.
Furthermore, he must know what instructional materials may
be secured, so that he may be of assistance to the teacher in
planning units and projects. The supervisor's knowledge of
films must go beyond the mere knowledge of titles and
appropriate grade levels; he should know specific sections of
the films, especially in connection' with topics in the courses of
study.

The supervisor visiting a classroom where the sound film is
being utilized must consider the procedure of the film presenta-
tion in the light of the organization planned for the entire unit.
Furthermore, the use of this instructional material is an integral
part of the other teaching activities of the period, not to be
disassociated in the supervisor's analysis.

It should be emphasized that the criticism of film-teaching
methods, like that of any other teaching activity, must be made
in terms of the purposes which the teacher has planned as the
guide for the day's lesson. To illustrate, a casual observer
might criticize the showing of only part of the film during the
lesson, or object to a lack of discussion following the showing.
Such techniques might be perfectly valid in terms of the purposes
of the lesson.

Some questions which a supervisor might ask in observing
a film lesson are :

1. How did the use of the film contribute to the attain-
ment of the day's lesson?

2. How had the students been prepared for the showing?
In what ways was the use of the film meeting learning
needs and interests? Had the students been prepared
to understand difficult new words or unfamiliar photo-
graphic devices?

412 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

3. How well did the discussion after the film showing-
uncover interest-leads to activities or study ?

4. Was the use of the sound film well integrated with other
learning activities proceeding in the class? Did the
teacher make full use of film impressions in guiding the
discussion after the showing?

5. Was the particular film used the best one which could
have been selected for the purpose? Would another
film have been better ?

6. Did the use of the film contribute something unique
or time-saving? Could the same purpose have been
better served through the use of some other device
a field trip, textbook assignment, an experiment?

7. How well was the mechanical part of the film showing
handled? Was the picture clear? The room well
ventilated? Projection managed with a minimum of
time consumed?

8. Is the film being utilized to stimulate creative expression
in writing, speaking, and art work ?

9. Are there centers of interest on the fringe of the unit
or of the lesson taught which might profitably be
developed for individual students ?

10. Should there be another showing of the same film? If
so, when, and for what specific purposes ?

The supervisor should encourage the publication, even if
only in mimeographed form, of outstanding lessons which his
teachers have developed. Such recognition of professional
excellence not only encourages the creative teacher, but helps
to bring others up to a higher level of skill by suggesting film
uses and procedures which might not have occurred to them.
Another stimulating device is to issue periodically a mimeo-
graphed bulletin which may become a handbook of film-teaching
methods, such as the Pittsburgh Handbook for the Use of
Visual Aids.

Crawford, E. Winifred (Director of Visual Education,
Montclair, New Jersey) "Director Guides Teachers in Use
of Visual Aids." Nation's Schools. 16:32-4. November
1935.

A supervisory program includes many phases of work, such
as planning with the teachers and pupils, visiting the teachers,
holding meetings, giving demonstration lessons, issuing bulletins,

TEACHER PREPARATION 413

compiling lists of sources, arranging teachers' visitations and
making material available.

Teachers need wise guidance in the handling of visual aids.
Many use them effectively ; some feel they are a nuisance, taking
too much time for preparation; others want to use them but do
not know what to expect from their use, and some include too
many at one time.

The supervisor cooperates with teachers during the planning
of problems and units of work and throughout the year helps
them use visual material as an integral part of their teaching.
In selecting visual aids, thought is given to creative ways in
which pupils may work under the guidance of the teacher. As
a result of the spirit of cooperation between teachers and director,
the pupils often approach the director for assistance.

Many of the director's visits to the classroom are in response
to teachers' requests. These visits are for various purposes:
consultation about what visual aids are available, aid for a
special group or pupil, help with equipment. The approach to
teachers who are reticent about using visual aids is gradual
and psychological. An invitation to give a demonstration lesson
on the use of visual aids must come from the teacher.

Teachers' meetings offer a splendid opportunity to discuss
the philosophy and fundamental educational principles under-
lying the use of visual aids. At such meetings a demonstration
lesson, followed by discussion, is found to be effective. The
showing of films illustrating the use made of visual aids in the
school system is very stimulating.

The director also offers cooperation to other supervisors and
department heads. Bulletins describing new developments in
the field of visual education, mimeographed source lists, bibliog-
raphies, and the like, are sent out from time to time.

The organization and routine of handling visual aids in
the Montclair schools have greatly promoted their use. The
central office lends prints, photographs, stereographs, slides,
film slides, motion pictures, maps, posters, charts, specimens,
articles, pamphlets, and equipment. Each school has its own
projectors.

Through supervision such as this, the director helps the
teachers in an understanding of the modern trends in philosophv
of education, for whose application and practice visual aids are
essential.

414 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Torrence, Floro (General Supervisor, Indianapolis Public
Schools) "Guidance in the Use of Visual Education Ma-
terial." Educational Screen. 16:24-5. January 1937.

Supervisors in their direction of teachers find the following
types in varying degrees: the alert, interested, efficient teachers,
and the teachers who have become inefficient by reason of ill
health or from a lack of interest. Both types need stimulation
and direction, the application of such help varying with the
relationship that exists between supervisor and teacher, the
teacher's general attitude toward her work, and her skill and
technique.

There are several ways in which the supervisor may proceed
to convince a teacher that a different method from the one being
used is necessary. He may, first of all, visit the teacher in
question for an appropriate length of time and in the course
of discussing the work broach tactfully the subject he has in
mind, as for example, the use of visual aids. In his enthusiasm
the supervisor should not give the impression that visual aids
make up a separate subject or are even a new procedure. The
best argument for their use should be that they enrich the subject
matter of the course.

The discussion may be followed by an invitation to the
teacher to visit a colleague who is using visual aids as a means
of training powers of observation and of developing ability to
interpret correctly. The teacher's curiosity may thus be
stimulated. Ask her to make the visit with this question in
mind, "How do visual aids effect worth-while learning?"
Arrangements should be made in advance with the demonstration
teacher for such visits. Immediately following the demonstra-
tion, a conference should be held with demonstrating teacher,
visiting teacher, principal, and supervisor attending.

The supervisor may then ask the teacher to invite him to
visit her again at some future time after she has had time to
reorganize her methods in accordance with modern interpreta-
tion of fundamental principles. In an advisory capacity, the
supervisor may offer guidance in such matters as further ex-
perimentation, use of materials, interpretation of courses of
study and curriculum records as they relate to visual education,
research reading, where and how to obtain materials, and their
care.

TEACHER PREPARATION 415

Often in the case of teachers unaccustomed to the use of
visual-education materials, a supervisor finds it necessary to
break down such inhibitions as not knowing how to operate
projectors, and fear in initiating the use of unfamiliar materials.
Recommendations to take a course in visual instruction will
often solve difficulties for teachers when other measures offered
by supervisors and principals fail.

Other instances of supervisory assistance for teachers in
the use of visual aids have been described in the following
short articles : "Getting the Faculty Machine Minded," by
F. G. Hoek (National Elementary Principal 13:167-70.
June 1934) ; "Teacher Training in Washington, D. C," by
Rebecca J. Gray (Visual Instruction News. 4:22-3. March
1932) ; and "Picture Education the Mechanics of Its
Operation," by Harry H. Haworth (Nation's Schools. 11:
23-8. January 1933).

In all the foregoing reports the general position seems
to be that the responsibility for in-service teacher preparation
rests with the local school authorities.

IV. WHAT is THE SCOPE OF INSTRUCTION IN THE
USE OF VISUAL AIDS?

In Picture Values in Education, by J. J. Weber, there
appeared an outline for a course in visual education which
had been prepared by Mr. Weber for the University of
Kansas in 1921. In 1929, Aughinbaugh revised and en-
larged upon this outline. His version, which appeared in
the Educational Screen, is summarized as follows.

Aughinbaugh, B. A. (Ohio State Supervisor of Visual In-
struction) "Outline for Course in Visual Instruction."
Educational Screen. 8 :307-8. December 1929.

I. HISTORICAL

A. Evolution from visual to aural communication

1. Empirical impressions (Dewey)

2. Natural signs (Dewey)

416 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

3. Intentional signs (Dewey) : gestures; oral speech;
recorded forms of communication

4. Poetic imagery; significance of poetic climax in
Shakespeare; figures of speech vs. pictures.

B. Evolution from aural to visual communication

1. Bacon and inductive reasoning : its effect

2. Evolution to mnemonics, ideographs, and picto-
graphs

3. Evolution of photography: history of photog-
raphy

4. Evolution of projected pictures (Ramsaye and
Talbot)

5. The motion picture a qualitative gain to com-
munication ; the close-up, flash back, stop and
substitute, etc.

6. The school and poetic expression; the school and
scientific expression

7. Future evolution of the motion picture; con-
venience for (a) direct viewing device for the
individual, (b) reading and thinking, and (c)
viewing and thinking.

II. VISUAL AIDS

A. Types of visual aids

1. The school appearance

2. The school journey (Hoban) : general informa-
tion; industrial; the museum; the laboratory (sci-
ence, natural, social, literature)

3. Things, specimens, models, exhibits

4. Painting, drawings, charts, posters

5. Cartoons, maps, graphs, diagrams

6. Stereographs

7. Photographs, half-tones, prints

8. Lantern slides

9. Motion pictures

10. Outlines, schemes

11. Pageants.

B. Sources of visual aids

1. School environment

2. Library

3. The museum

4. The blackboard

5. Commercial firms

6. Government departments

7. Extension bureaus.

TEACHER PREPARATION 417

III. TECHNICAL

A. General problems

1. Fire regulations

2. Use of electricity

3. Training and organizing of group of operators

4. Necessary adjuncts : booths, screens, shades,
storerooms

5. Care of apparatus: projectors and films.

B. Lantern slides

1. Types of lanterns : glass slides, film slides, opaque
pictures ; discussion of how to use each

2. Making slides ; laboratory work

3. Making photographs: prints (contact), enlarge-
ments, taking the picture (cameras, lenses, judg-
ing light, composition) ; laboratory work.

C. Motion pictures

1. Types of projectors: standard, semiportable,
portable

2. Types of film : nitrate, acetate, 35 mm., 16 mm.

3. Handling the projector: threading, framing,
focusing, lighting, timing, gaging speed

4. Cleaning and oiling: how to clean lenses, gate,
sprockets; importance of oiling and how to do it

5. Causes of trouble : hooked sprocket teeth, emul-
sion on film slides or springs, loose take-up, bent
reels, dirty sprockets, in-and-out of focus, slap-
ping noise, jumping picture, dim picture, weaving
picture, loop pulling

6. Mending film, notching broken sprocket holes,
inspecting, shipping.

IV. EDUCATIONAL PROCEDURES WITH VISUAL AIDS (Dorris;
Hollis; Ellis and Thornborough)

A. Special methods for :

1. Social science: geography, history, civics

2. Linguistic studies: foreign languages, vernacular,
literature

3. Biological sciences: botany, zoology, anatomy

4. Health studies : physiology, foods and diet, physi-
cal training

5. Physical sciences: physics, chemistry, physiog-
raphy

6. Mathematics : geometry, arithmetic

7. Vocational guidance: agriculture, industries, home
economics.

418 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

B. General methods

1. Model lesson plans for each visual aid

2. When to use each type of visual aid

3. Preliminary preparation

4. Follow-up work

5. Classroom use vs. auditorium use.

V. THE ADMINISTRATION OF VISUAL INSTRUCTION

A. Supervising the use of visual aids

1. Classroom supervision

2. Training-school courses

3. Demonstration lessons.

B. Administering the use of visual aids

1. In a single school: circulation of materials,
teachers' references

2. For the school system : purchase costs, inspection
and evaluation ; classification for use ; correla-
tion with special subjects; distribution and
storage ; office records

3. For state institutions and departments: booking
and routine; rentals and transportation; film-
library service; film score cards; teachers' leaflets.

VI. PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE USE OF VISUAL AIDS

A. Hygiene of the eye: physiology of, defects and treat-
ment, lighting of classrooms, binocular vision

B. Pictorial saturation point: how many pictures, how
much language, how much activity, word-picture-
activity balance

C. Emotional effects of pictures: pleasure and satisfac-
tion; interest stimulated

D. Moral values of pictures: information, interests, atti-
tudes, ideals

E. Standards for evaluation of pictures : truth, simplicity,
problematic organization, standard for comparison,
appeal to feelings, social-moral values, static and
dynamic content, mechanical perfection, photographic
quality, adaptation to purpose or age

F. Factors in pictures and their use: realism, size or
area, color, definition, lights and shades, composition,
perspective, projection, stillness, motion, isolation,
group presence

TEACHER PREPARATION 419

G. Why use visual materials and methods ?

1. Primary sources of knowledge

2. Necessity for experience

3. Dangers of verbalism

4. Motivating learning

5. Vitalizing subject matter

6. Time saving in modern life

7. Retardation and elimination

8. Concreteness in education.

VII. RESEARCH IN THE USE OF VISUAL AIDS

A. General problems

1. Can one learn with less experience when objective
aids are used ?

2. Is the motion picture more effective than the still
picture ?

3. Does the abstract thinker get more out of visual
instruction than the "thing" thinker, or less?

4. What is the specific function of visual aids in the
learning process?

B. Administrative problems

1. How should the classroom be darkened so as to be
least harmful to vision?

2. What is the best w r ay to develop a visual-aids
department in a small school system ?

3. Can a system of film exchange be worked out for
rural schools with the county as the unit? How?

C. Problems in methodology

1. What is the ideal lesson plan for the use of edu-
cational films?

2. How does the time of using a visual aid vary
with its nature ?

3. How does the use of realistic aids differ from that
of the diagrammatic?

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Outlines of some recommended courses in visual educa-
tion have next been summarized. These include the syllabus
by the committee of which McClusky was chairman and the
plans by Gregory, Hutchinson, and Henderson. The plan
of the French educators, Barrier and Lebrun, surpasses any
hope American educators have expressed for visual instruc-

420 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

tion. They visualize a cinema-teaching normal school as part
of the higher educational system.

McClusky, F. Dean (Director, Scarborough School, New
York), Jenkins, John J. (Bronxville Schools, New York),
Knowlton, Daniel C. (New York University), Merton,
Elda (Waukesha, Wisconsin) Visual Instruction: Syllabus
of a Proposed Textbook for Use in Teacher-Training
Schools. 1932. Unpublished.

The main distinction between visual instruction and other
instruction is a matter of emphasis. Visual instruction
emphasizes the value of concrete imagery in the learning process,
whereas other instruction stresses the importance of verbal
imagery.

The justification for discussing the relation of visual aids to
instruction apart from general methods lies in the fact that there
has developed, rightly enough, a strong movement to centralize
visual materials in schools as such materials become increasingly
common through the rapid growth of photography. This move-
ment toward centralization has been furthered: (1) by the
development of elaborate educational departments in museums ;
(2) by the establishment of school museums, such as those in
St. Louis, Reading, and Cleveland; (3) by the development of
visual-instruction extension service in state universities; (4) by
the growth of city school bureaus for visual instruction; and
(5) by the organization of companies to manufacture and distri-
bute material equipment for visual education.

A second reason for a separate discussion is found in the
fact that in general- or special-methods textbooks little atten-
tion has been given to the use of visual materials. Finally, a
critical analysis and evaluation of the situation is needed before
mistakes are made which will detract from the advantages of
using such devices.

A teacher should be familiar with the following aspects of
visual instruction :

1. The place of visual instruction in the modern school from
the viewpoint of the educational psychologist

2. What experience has taught us about the value and place
of visual instruction in the modern school

3. What research has taught us about the value and place of
visual instruction in the modern school

[This section has been adapted from F. Dean McClusky,
Visual Instruction: Its Value and Needs. The field of

TEACHER PREPARATION 421

research is divided into five sections: (a) the determina-
tion of the pedagogical effectiveness of the different ma-
terials; (b) the development of effective techniques in
teaching with visual aids; (c) the correlation of visual
materials with the curriculum; (d) the improvement of
the mechanics of constructing and presenting visual ma-
terials; and (e) the improvement of the administrative
procedure involved in handling apparatus and materials
of visual instruction.]

4. A classification of visual materials

5. A description of the various types of visual material

6. The technique of teaching with visual aids

7. The use of visual aids as applied to various school
subjects

8. The administration of visual education in the modern
school

9. The production, care, and distribution of visual materials

10. Sources of visual material

11. Sources of visual equipment

Selected reading references are listed after each section.

Gregory, William M. 15 (Educational, Museum, Cleveland)
"A Teacher's Training Course in Visual Aids." Educational
Screen. 4:88-90. February 1925.

A teacher-training course in visual education, based on
sound educational practice, is needed for elementary-school
teachers. Such a course should take note of the fact that the
psychological reactions should determine the visual aids best
suited to produce results in the different school subjects. The
relation of visual aids to imagination, interest, effort, memory,
and association is the decisive factor in the choice of visual
materials.

The training course should consist of general lectures on
principles and practice, discussion of the various visual aids
and their place in education, practical experience in preparing
and using exhibits, demonstration lessons with pupils under
favorable opportunities for observation.

16 Compare with the prospectus for an Institute of Visual Education under the
direction of Dr. Gregory, held at Western Reserve University, June through July
1937. Consideration is given by specialists of the following topics: fundamental
problems, visual materials, equipment, application of learning aids to the various
school subjects; research and organization of teaching units, consideration and
evaluation of the motion picture, administration of visual-auditory aids, information
on sources of materials, readings, the Cleveland Museum and visual instruction, and
an evaluation of visual aids in education.

422 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

The following outline is suggested for studying each type of
aid:

1. Its place and value in the course of study; subjects,
topics, and methods of use. Demonstration lessons with
objective tests may be given to pupils before and after
lessons to test the efficiency of the different visual aids

2. Instructional methods in class and auditorium

3. Educational value: reactions of the pupils as shown by
the results of experiments

4. Standards of quality: picture value, photographic
quality, and the like

5. Methods of testing efficiency

6. Sources and costs : commercial, federal, local

7. Technique of handling material and equipment, includ-
ing techniques for filing, mounting, storing

8. Reading references, including courses of study and sug-
gested use.

This course should cover thirty hours of work. A survey of
courses in the United States at the time of writing shows that
they emphasize the technical aspects of photography, the me-
chanics of projection, the motion picture, and that quite generally
tftey direct the demonstration lessons with pupils. Visual-
instruction courses tend to be elective rather than required in
teacher-training institutions.

Hutchinson, J. Raymond (Director of Visual Education,
Thomas Jefferson High School, Elizabeth, New Jersey)
"Fundamentals of Visual Education." School Executive.
55 : 186-8. January 1936.

Superintendents and administrators should establish or foster
existing courses in visual instruction for all in-service teachers,
with proper credit and immediate application to existing educa-
tional needs.

In most systems, courses in visual education could be offered
by the university extension service with very little expense to
the school system. In fact, where courses of this type are not
available, training and experience in the use of visual aids might
be carried out as a faculty project. Superintendents and adminis-
trators could lead the way in requiring that new entrants in the
teaching field have some training in visual and audio-visual
instruction through adequate teacher-training courses. Penn-
sylvania has done well to make a laboratory course in visual

TEACHER PREPARATION 423

and sensory aids mandatory for certification in teaching in that
state. It would be wise for all states to require such a course.

The following items are suggested for inclusion in a course:
(1) the establishment of the scope of the field; (2) the identifica-
tion of visual and sensory aids; (3) the determination of the
use of each; (4) the study of the construction and operation
of each; (5) the evaluation of materials; (6) the application of
materials to existing curricula and educational needs; (7) the
development of classroom procedure. "The whole philosophy
of the course should deal in objective fashion with the highest
concepts of learning through the fundamental uses of the visual-
sensory mediums."

For the student, the use of such courses should result in
"a more full and complete life through an enlarged opportunity
to understand life; for the teacher, natural reluctance for new
things is often supplanted by an enthusiasm for the practical
usefulness of the ideas set forth." The average teacher is not
aware of the value of visual instruction in correlating, clarifying,
and enriching his own personal ability and merits. The common
entertainment idea of the movie still persists, but an educational
motion picture can aid in giving experience.

This experience must be directed, however. In many of
the complex situations illustrated on the screen, even when it
is possible to present the details in proper relation to one another,
there must be a ' 'controlled reality." One idea at a time must
be emphasized with other details subordinated, until each im-
portant item is given its proper place and opportunity. Another
plan is to teach the student for what to look and to be willing
to reexamine the many details at length.

Henderson, H. A. (State Teachers College, Terre Haute,
Indiana) "What Should a Course in Visual Instruction
Include?" Educational Screen. 11:186. June 1932. Re-
print from the April 1932 issue of Indiana Teacher.

A course in visual instruction should be first of all a labora-
tory course, whose instructor is familiar with the various types
of visual aids and can teach their use, manipulation, and care.
If the students of the visual method of teaching are to derive
full benefit from the course, each one must do some supervised
practice teaching following the recognized psychological lesson
procedure. The procedure is as follows : The instructor should

424 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

motivate the lesson by bringing some known experience before
the pupil; create interest by relating known to unknown ex-
perience; give the pupil a concrete and meaningful vocabulary;
assign tasks and make available sources of information for re-
search work ; after the research has been done, hold a conference
with the class allowing pupils to present and discuss pictures, ob-
jects, and the like, and to bring up questions about these things
they would like to know or do.

It is suggested that a course in visual instruction be given
separately for grade- and high-school teachers. The following
are the purposes of such a course: To give a background of
correct imagery for descriptions outside the child's experience ; to
raise problems the answers to which may be found by reading,
that is, to motivate silent reading; to make the lesson vivid and
interesting; to focus the attention of the group upon a given
subject ; to create an atmospheric background for teaching
appreciation and literary interpretation.

Barrier and Lebrun (France) "Teachers' Collaboration in the
Production and Use of Didactic Films." International Re-
view of Educational Cinematography. 6:9-13. January
1934.

Teachers must collaborate in many ways in the preparation
of didactic films in the choice of subjects, in preparing the
scenario, in mounting (editing) the film, in the actual filming.

A special course in pedagog-'cal and technical training in
cinematography is essential. Just as a real cartographer, if he
is to be more than an ordinary draftsman, must know geography,
so the cinema specialist must possess professional qualifications.
A cinema-teaching normal school should be part of the higher
education system and should be a regular training school for
those who will be called upon to produce films to fit the needs
of schools.

An international normal cinema school is another possibility.
Such a school would tend to promote the best scientific, technical,
and literary training. Included would be training in the use of
the lantern slide, the phonograph record, the sound film with
its techniques of production and in the preparation of teachers'
manuals.

A distributing service on a large scale would encourage
intelligent criticism from the field, leading to the production of
desirable didactic films.

TEACHER PREPARATION 425

The article on teacher training by Spencer summarizes
the facts, attitudes, and skills that he thinks teachers should
acquire after taking a course similar to the one recommended
by the State of Pennsylvania.

Spencer, Herbert L. (Principal, Henry Clay Frick Training
School for Teachers, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania) "Training
Teachers to Recognize Vital Values in Education : Abstract."
National Education Association Proceedings. 68:920-3.
1930.

The basis of a course given at the Henry Clay Frick Training
School for Teachers in Pittsburgh is the very complete outline
of factual content for a course in visual education, "Summary
of Technics of Visual and Other Sensory Aids for Teachers in
Service and Teachers in Training," prepared by C. F. Hoban,
director of visual education for the Commonwealth of Penn-
sylvania at Harrisburg. The following are some of the facts,
attitudes, and skills that teachers are expected to possess.

Facts. Visual education is not a separate subject but an
effective means or method of instruction that can be success-
fully applied to nearly all subjects. While teachers will be
trained in the techniques of using visual and other sensory
aids by a special methods course, it is highly desirable that these
techniques be included as a part of the special courses devoted
to methods of teaching reading, history, science, nature study,
and the like. Teachers must recognize that visual and other
sensory aids are vital to the successful teaching of practically
every subject in the curriculum because they furnish the con-
crete elements necessary to a complete understanding and
recognition of vital values in the material composing the school
curriculum.

Teachers should recognize that visual and other sensory aids
have played a major part in the successful educational systems
of the past. The use of pictures by the early Indians, the Greeks,
the early Egyptians, and even by the cavemen in primitive times
are examples.

Teachers should know that sensory experience is the founda-
tion of intellectual activity. Very few teachers are gifted with
the ability of making word pictures realistic. And yet, it is the
realistic and concrete that children are first interested in and
not the abstract and symbolic.

426 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Teachers must also recognize that verbalism is probably the
major weakness in most classroom situations. This weakness
in teaching can be remedied by proper use of visual material.

Teachers should recognize, further, the values of visual aids
not only in teaching but in other fields. Henry Ford realized
the value of motion pictures as a means of developing better
automobile repairmen. The United States Government uses
visual aids extensively in its work in immigration, Americaniza-
tion, health, and the like. Doctor Wholey, psychiatrist at the
University of Pittsburgh, has recently developed an extremely
interesting film on multiple personality.

Teachers should also recognize that the effective use of visual
aids will result in these definite outcomes: an economy of time
in teaching; enrichment of instruction; and development of
correct initial impressions.

Teachers should know the various types of visual aids and
the values of each.

Attitudes. In order to recognize vital values in education,
the teacher should develop a scientific attitude so that he may
determine for himself the relative values of the materials and
techniques. He should also be aware that though the funda-
mental principles in teaching change very little, better and newer
methods of subject presentation are constantly being devised ; he
should, accordingly, be ever alert to accept and try these new
devices.

Skills. To develop skill in handling effectively the different
types of visual material, every teaching-training institution
should number in its curriculum a course in visual education
which should include not only a study of the factual background
and the development of mental attitudes but very practical
laboratory assignments in the actual care and operation of the
various devices common to visual education. Each student
teacher could be required to conduct a school journey ; to demon-
strate with objects, specimens, and models ; and to make extensive
use of various exhibits. He should have practice in the care
and operation of projectors. He should know how to correct
such troubles as clouded illumination, too small or too large a
picture, failure of lamps to light, poor focus, displacement of
optical system, and appearance of spectrum colors on the margin
of the screen. He should also know how to operate a 16 mm.
projector, and in some school systems a 35 mm. projector. The

TEACHER PREPARATION 427

course should further include the making of lantern slides,
especially those on plain and etched glass and those made with
cellophane. It is also desirable that the teacher know how to
take, develop, and finish good pictures, and to make photographic
slides.

The only text books available for students and instructors
in teachers' colleges and universities are:

Dorris, A. V. Visual Instruction in the Public Schools. Ginn
and Co. Boston. 1928.

Hoban, C. F., Hoban, C. F. Jr., and Zisman, S. B. Visualizing
the Curriculum. Cordon Company. New York. 1937.

There are, in addition, an increasing number of reference
books for students in the field, as the large number of ab-
stracts in this volume will indicate. 16

V. PREPARATION FOR THE TEACHING OF MOTION-
PICTURE APPRECIATION

Learning from visual-sensory materials reaches beyond
the walls of the classroom. That this fact is now accepted,
the recent motion-picture appreciation movement testifies.
The findings of the Payne Fund investigation have shown
the influence of theatrical films on the life and attitudes of
children. Courses in motion-picture appreciation are spring-
ing up rapidly in school systems of various sizes in all parts
of the country. Before a teacher can undertake to influence
her pupils toward a more critical evaluation of what they
see at the movies, however, she must be given some guidance
herself. Edgar Dale explains what sort of preparation
teachers need for launching a motion-picture study program.

M See also Appendix.

428 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Dale, Edgar. "A Comprehensive Program for the Teaching
of Motion Picture Appreciation." Educational Screen. 13:
125-8. May 1934. An address delivered before the Visual
Instruction Department of the National Education Associa-
tion in Cleveland, February 1934.

The findings of the Payne Fund investigations have brought
visual-education groups to a recognition of the fact that it is
human behavior that we are trying to influence through our
visual aids. The actual life and feelings of a man who makes
a tire in a rubber factory, for example, are more important than
the mechanical processes involved in making a tire. The find-
ings have also shown that visual influences are at work in the
out-of -school life of the child and that these influences need
to be reckoned with in our programs.

The great need for motion-picture appreciation in schools is
further evident in the fact that though hundreds of thousands
of dollars are spent in the school to give young people accurate
notions about the world, these notions may easily be distorted
by the inaccurate ideas they are likely to get at the movie theater.
How, then, are young people to be trained, first, in the wise
selection of motion-picture entertainment, and second, in
standards by which they can evaluate what they see on the
screen? To so train them would involve a whole program of
education, in which the home, the church, and the school should
cooperate ; it would require the development in children of the
habit of using standards for evaluating motion pictures similar
to those set up in other fields. Since parents must help to
regulate the movie experiences of children, they should assist
in the development of these standards.

The activities of some national organizations with respect to
motion-picture appreciation are as follows:
The National Board of the Young Women's Christian Asso-
ciation, through its publication, the Woman's Press, offers
guidance in the page called 'The New Three R's Reels,
Reading, and Radio" and has published a series of articles
on the motion picture. The Association is also making ex-
perimental programs in motion-picture appreciation for which
some fifty groups have been furnished with free text
materials.

The National Council of the Young Men's Christian Associa-
tion discusses almost every month, in several national publi-
cations, some phase of motion-picture research findings for

TEACHER PREPARATION 429

discussion groups. Three tentative outlines for discussion
groups have been worked out.

The National Catholic Welfare Conference has published
outlines on motion pictures for study groups and gives much
space to the findings of the Payne Fund studies.
The International Council of Religious Education publishes
articles on the relation of motion pictures to youth.
The National Council of Teachers of English has sponsored
a nation-wide program of motion-picture appreciation, using
the textbook, How to Appreciate Motion Pictures, and other
printed matter.

The National Congress of Parents and Teachers has pub-
lished a series of bulletins on its national program in the
field of motion pictures; one bulletin is entitled "Teaching
Motion Picture Discrimination to Children and Youth."

A program of motion-picture appreciation has been worked
out in five states : North Carolina, Connecticut, Iowa, California,
and Ohio, in cooperation with the state departments of education.

It should be the responsibility of the school, under the spon-
sorship of the Department of Visual Instruction of the National
Education Association to include in the visual program the
out-of -school experiences of children by adding to their film
libraries outstanding theatrical films and by developing in young
people habits of critical judgment.

Dale, Edgar. "Motion-Picture Appreciation." School Man-
agement. 5:181-2. March 1936. Abstracted from the
Harvard Teachers Record.

The goals we have set up in our work in motion-picture
appreciation are these: (1) To develop an understanding of
the influence of the motion picture upon the information,
attitudes, and conduct of children, youths, and adults; (2) to
develop discrimination in the selection of motion-picture enter-
tainment; (3) to evaluate critically what is seen on the screen;
(4) to develop leadership among high-school students in the
solution of our motion-picture problems.

Before a teacher can help a student to clarify his ideas as
to motion pictures, however, she must first clarify her own point
of view. She must understand the premises, articulate and
inarticulate, that are present in motion pictures. Are we un-
consciously accepting premises that are really inimical to our
own philosophy?

430 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Note, for instance, the overemphasis on chance, the fortuitous
in human events, that occurs so frequently in motion pictures.
Consider the unusual methods by which hero and heroine are
apt to make each other's acquaintance, or the excessive use of
supernatural forces as in The Return of Peter Grimm or Peter
Ibbetsen. Another premise may be found in the numerous
themes treating the white-man ego-complex. To white people,
Negroes like Stepin Fetchit may appear funny in their stupidity
and slovenliness, but they are not funny to colored people.

Another major premise of American movies is that "labor is
indecorous." The concept of labor set forth in motion pictures
is confused, evasive, and even distorted. Most farming on the
screen is done by gentlemen farmers in well-heeled boots, or
is introduced to provide a rustic setting for a love scene. Still
another tendency on the part of motion-picture producers is to
pay more attention to the social register than to the social scene.

Other premises are the acceptance of the economic status quo ;
the notion that war and especially espionage are glamorous;
the idea that crime is caused by bad people kill or incarcerate
the bad people and you solve the crime problem; the illusion
that romantic love solves most problems.

Teachers, then, must face the question: Shall we accept
reality or shall we avoid it through escape religion, escape litera-
ture, escape movies? The alternative is to have motion pictures
with insight. Many of the genuine problems of modern living
unemployment, bad housing, poverty might be given dramatic
and revealing treatment on the screen.

The teacher of motion-picture appreciation is cognizant of the
fact that the producer is using a form of suasion, which in times
such as these especially since movies are in the hand of those
who are benefiting from the status-quo may be dangerous to
high-school students. Schools have overemphasized the accretion
of unfocused information and have neglected the development
of good taste and good judgment.

A recent survey of colleges and teacher-training institu-
tions reveals the fact that many college officials are aware
of the role of the radio and the motion picture in molding
the lives of girls and boys. They believe that teacher-training
institutions have a responsibility in the preparation of teach-

TEACHER PREPARATION 431

ers to teach discrimination in the use of these media. Though
only in a few cases has there been any attempt to offer
organized courses in radio and photoplay appreciation, it is
gratifying to note that fifty- three institutions are considering
the introduction of such instruction in their curricula. A
brief summary of the findings of a national survey is here
outlined.

"Training Teachers in Appreciation." The Nezvs Letter.

February 1937.

The results quoted here are adapted from the report by
Dr. Cline M. Koon on the survey conducted by the U.S. Com-
missioner of Education in April 1936. A detailed summary is
available from the Editorial Division of the U.S. Office of Edu-
cation, and is entitled, "Teacher Training in Radio Program
and Photoplay Appreciation," by Cline M. Koon.

The growth in courses in photoplay and radio program
appreciation in high schools throughout the country indicates
the need for teacher training in the technique of this type of
instruction. To ascertain how many teacher-training institutions
in the U.S. are offering such preparation, the U.S. Commissioner
of Education John W. Studebaker sent letters of inquiry in
April, 1936 to 1,530 officials in 1,142 institutions. Replies were
received from 828 officials in 720 (63 per cent) of the institu-
tions and further data were obtained by additional correspon-
dence and an examination of college catalogues.

The study discloses that only 14, or less than 2 per cent
of the institutions replying are offering regular courses in either
radio or motion picture appreciation. Six of these are in both
subjects, and eight in motion picture appreciation alone. Some
instruction in these fields is afforded by 224 institutions,
(31 per cent), as units of work in courses in education, sociology,
English, and other subjects. Some form of instruction in the
field is being planned by 74 institutions. This reveals that a
total of 284, or 40 per cent of the teacher-training institutions
replying are offering or planning to offer some instruction in
radio and motion picture appreciation.

On the other hand, three-fifths of the colleges replying
indicated that they were not only failing to offer this instruction,
but were not even planning to do so. It is pointed out, however,

432 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

that many of the colleges in this category are affording their
students training in discrimination through school broadcasts
and motion picture production.

In most of the cases, the instruction being offered in apprecia-
tion of the radio and motion picture is through units in other
courses. They are included in special methods, visual education,
English, art appreciation, music appreciation, or play production
courses.

The method of instruction usually prevailing in these courses
is discussion of available programs or motion pictures and an
evaluation of their contribution to education. Study guides and
teachers' manuals are usually used to supplement the discussion.

Consideration will now be given to texts and manuals
available in the field of motion picture appreciation. 17

For teachers of high-school pupils, there is a teachers'
manual to be used with the textbook, How to Appreciate
Motion Pictures, by Edgar Dale. The manual is entitled
Teaching Motion-Picture Appreciation: A Manual for Teach-
ers. The abstract follows.

Pollard, Elizabeth Watson. Teaching Motion-Picture Appre-
ciation: A Manual for Teachers of High-School Classes.
Bureau of Educational Research, Ohio State University.
Columbus. 1933. 60 p.

The manual, it is explained in the preface, was developed
after experimental courses in city and rural schools had been
organized and later studied by means of interviews, verbatim
minutes, and much direct observation. It has special application
to the textbook by Edgar Dale, Plow to Appreciate Motion
Pictures.

The outline of chapters is as follows :

1. THE PURPOSE AND THE METHODS OF STUDY

Purpose ; teacher's preparation ; use of literature as illus-
tration

2. THE USE OF DISCUSSION

Common types of discussion, including developing, com-
menting, collecting, building; method in discussion, i.e.,
approach, discussion, conclusion; points to remember

17 A bibliography for use in motion picture appreciation courses was printed
in the April 1937 issue of the News Letter, published at Ohio State University,
Columbus, Ohio. See also Appendix.

18 The Macmillan Company. New York. 1933.

TEACHER PREPARATION 433

3. SOURCE MATERIALS AND THEIR USES

The textbook ; books and magazine articles ; study guides ;
radio ; talks ; tests

4. SUGGESTED STUDY UNITS

Eleven units to correspond to the chapter headings of
the textbook; suggestions for other activities

The second part of this manual develops the basic problems
of the motion picture as suggested by the textbook. These
problems include selecting the picture, the story and its produc-
tion, the purpose and future of motion pictures.

A very valuable course of study in motion-picture appre-
ciation has recently been published. This booklet contains
suggestions, for teachers of all subjects in the high school,
for using the out-of-school motion-picture experiences of
students. This is the most comprehensive teachers' manual
produced to date.

Sterner, Alice P. (Barringer High School, Newark, New
Jersey) and Bowden, W. Paul (East Orange High School,
East Orange, New Jersey) "A Course of Study in Motion=-
Picture Appreciation." Educational and Recreational Guides,
Inc. 138 Washington St., Newark, New Jersey. 1936.
63 p.

This course of study is made up of a series of units which
will coordinate naturally with social and physical sciences,
history, modern languages, and English. In its broader scope the
course will contribute to the teaching of all the subjects presented
in a modern high-school curriculum. The units offered are so
arranged that they may be adapted to class age and intelligence
and to the amount of time allotted for instruction in motion-
picture appreciation.

In addition to the list of general objectives and general
activities, there are outlined twelve units, with objectives, content,
materials (bibliography), appraisal, and suggested activities for
each. The topics treated in these twelve units are : Introduction
to the Study, History of Motion Pictures, Motion-Picture
Vocabulary, Story, Types of Motion Pictures, Acting, Director,
Sets, Sound and Music, Photography, Seeing a Motion Picture,
Value of Motion Pictures.

A comprehensive bibliography is appended.

434 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

A very helpful bulletin has been published by the Cali-
fornia Department of Education, offering suggestions to
teachers in the elementary schools with respect to a motion-
picture appreciation program. The purpose and plan are
here outlined. Still another booklet, How to Judge Motion
Pictures, by Sarah MacLean Mullen, is designed for use with
high-school students.

Potter, Gladys L. (Assistant Chief, Division of Elementary
Education and Rural Schools) (Chairman of Committee)
Motion Picture Appreciation in the Elementary School.
Department of Education Bulletin, No. 9. Sacramento, Cali-
fornia. May 1, 1934. 37 p.

Vierling Kersey, Superintendent of Public Instruction, states
in the foreword that Motion Picture Appreciation in the Ele-
mentary School is the first of a series intended to give aid to
superintendents, principals, teachers, parents, and students. It
is notably significant, says Kersey, that we should have come to
realize that through a study of out-of -school influences, teachers,
parents, and educators may be aided in the provision of more
adequate educational opportunities for children.

In the preface, Mrs. Gladys L. Potter, chairman, states that
the suggestions presented in the bulletin are for the use of the
teacher in awakening children to the educational possibilities
of the films and in arousing appreciations that will raise the
standards of movie audiences. It is in no way an attempt to
promote the attendance of children at motion-picture theaters.

The bulletin is divided into two parts. In Part I, "The
Motion Picture and Its Relation to Education," are considered
the influence of the motion picture, recent studies relative to
the motion picture, educational possibilities in motion pictures,
and the responsibility of the teacher. In Part II, "Suggestions to
the Teacher/' we find a discussion of photography, making a
screen play, tone values, documentary films, costumes and make-
up, music, sets, and bibliographical notes.

Mullen, Sarah MacLean. Ho^v to Judge Motion Pictures.
Scholastic. Chamber of Commerce Building. Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania. 1934. 60 p.

This pamphlet discusses motion-picture appreciation under
the following headings: Rules Before the Play; While We

TEACHER PREPARATION 435

Watch ; Plot What It Is and How to Judge It ; Talk After the
Play; Working with the Theme; The Story; Directors What
They Do; Acting, Good and Bad; Appreciating the Sounds We
Hear; Good and Bad Talk; Eyebrow Pencil and Grease Paint;
Building the Stage Set; Photographing Light; The Camera and
the Camera Man; More About Sound; More About Directors;
The Last Step ; and Making Our Own Judgments.

Teachers of photoplay appreciation have been greatly
aided in developing discussions around current films, by the
valuable suggestions and bibliography provided in the study
guides published by Educational and Recreational Guides,
Inc., of Newark, N.J. These appear from time to time
immediately preceding the release of an exceptional photo-
play.

Another bulletin compiled for use in photoplay appre-
ciation classes is Motion Picture Appreciation (Bulletin 98),
issued in 1935 by the Pennsylvania Department of Public
Instruction in Harrisburg.

VI. SHOULD COURSES IN VISUAL INSTRUCTION BE

SEPARATE OR SHOULD GUIDANCE BE OFFERED

IN SPECIAL METHODS COURSES?

The argument that visual aids may be fitted into almost
any type of higher-education course and that a separate
offering is hardly necessary is offered by Freeman. Similarly,
McClusky, in his article, "Finding the Facts of Visual Edu-
cation," (see page 385) concludes that "the solution [of
teacher preparation in visual education] does not lie in
directors of special courses, but rather in that of incorporat-
ing into the already existing prescribed courses in methods,
the treatment of the topic visual instruction as part of these
courses." A recent address by the Dean of the School of
Education of the University of Wisconsin also advances the
argument that a separate course is undesirable. W. M.

436 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Gregory, director of the Educational Museum in Cleveland,
is of the same opinion. Gregory writes: "I believe that
educators are making a great mistake in pushing a course
in visual education or instruction. What should be done is
that each subject such as history, geography, science, and
so on, should develop its visual material within its course.
To separate visual instruction into a distinct course is a
mistake, and in many places has not succeeded very well.
It does reach a few visual enthusiasts, that is true, but to
reach a great mass of teachers, the visual material should be
integrated into each course of study and recognized as an
essential part of that course of study. Perhaps that might
be the thesis of a visual-instruction course how to introduce
into each curriculum in the school the appropriate and essen-
tial visual material, and to give the teacher skill in using that
material in the subject for which it is designed."

Freeman, Frank N. "Graduate Training in Visual Instruc-
tion." Quoted in Educational Screen. 5:489-91. October
1926.

Courses in visual instruction are classified as dealing with the
problems (a) of particular positions, (b) of groups of jobs
having methods or processes in common, and (c) of basic sci-
ences, bodies of knowledge, or research techniques. Courses that
consider the problems of particular positions deal, for example,
with the duties of the superintendent or principal, or with special
methods in, say, geography. Courses of this type should include
a discussion of visual education. Courses that deal with problems
of groups of jobs having methods or processes in common may
take up the administration or methods of teaching. They may
then include visual education as one of the topics to be treated.
Courses dealing with the problem of basic sciences may con-
sider educational psychology, for example, with visual education
as a method of presentation, or they may consider experimental
education, statistical method, or historical methods.

"The conclusion which I draw from this analysis is that
visual education is a natural topic in a variety of courses. It is
of interest to various types of students and is to be approached

TEACHER PREPARATION 437

from various points of view. For this reason, it is most appro-
priately treated in connection with various courses where it is
pertinent, rather than as a subject of a separate course.

"The suggestion I make, therefore, is that problems of visual
education be discussed or treated in any course in which they
arise."

Anderson, C. J. (Dean of the School of Education, Univer-
sity of Wisconsin, Madison) "Some Unsolved Problems in
the Development of Visual Education." Educational Screen.
15:73-4. March 1936.

One of the problems of visual education is how visual instruc-
tion may be presented to the teacher so that she may be able
to use this technique efficiently. A separate course in visual
instruction has not been offered at the University of Wisconsin
because it is felt that this problem is similar to the one pre-
sented by the introduction of remedial instruction and diagnosis
several years ago. Separate courses appeared necessary for
learning the techniques of diagnosis, but now it is understood
that this technique is a fundamental and organic part of every
course in techniques of instruction and not an appendage to
be presented under a separate label. The same reasoning might
be followed in the development of visual-instruction techniques.
If it is an appendage or merely a desirable "follow-up" feature
of instructional techniques, perhaps a special course should
be offered, but if it is to become an organic part of all educational
procedures it should be made an indispensable part of the core
courses in teacher training. Purely as a temporary procedure,
however, schools of education will in all probability find it neces-
sary to differentiate between teachers-in-service and teachers-
in-training in their provisions for inducting them into this new
field.

Other problems of visual instruction are the reorganization
of curricula at the elementary, secondary, and college levels,
the reorganization of textbooks, and the financial problem.

On the other hand, some educators feel that special
training in the use of visual sensory aids must be given
apart from any other course. This type of training, it is
contended, may be used for any subject in the curriculum. A

438 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

general course in visual instruction may, if desired, be fol-
lowed by a more specialized treatment in special methods
courses for the various school subjects.

It is interesting to note that in the preface to a syllabus
for a visual-education course, McClusky in 1932 had modi-
fied his recommendation to state that a separate course is
needed for emphasis. It is also significant that in discussing
the work offered at the University of Pittsburgh, Yeager
makes the statement that "since methods courses do not place
adequate emphasis on the use and care of visual-sensory aids,
separate courses are necessary so that every prospective and
in-service teacher will be brought in direct contact through
participation and application with visual-sensory aids de-
veloped sequentially and practically applied." 19

Merton in the article summarized below also justifies the
need for a separate course.

The judgment of certain supervisors of instruction in
Pennsylvania have been briefly summarized from a report by
Mclsaac in 1937.

Merton, Elda L. (Assistant Superintendent of Schools,
Waukesha, Wisconsin) "Responsibility of Teacher- Prepara-
tion Institutions for Visual Education Courses from the
Viewpoint of the Classroom Teacher/' National Education
Association Proceedings. 1933 :783-4.

The problem arises as to whether state teachers' colleges
should offer a required course in visual education based on the
nature and correct use of visual aids in teaching, or whether
this program shall be presented incidentally in the present general
methods courses in reading, languages, and the sciences.

Every teacher needs first an overview of the scope of field
and knowledge of the advantages and limitations of each aid in
various teaching situations. Furthermore, the teacher must
take specific teaching situations and incorporate into the lesson
plan the visual aids best fitted to meet them.

Teachers with training in visual-education courses have been
found to use vicarious experiences in their teaching more fre-

18 See also Ankeney, p. 389.

TEACHER PREPARATION 439

quently and more intelligently than teachers dependent upon the
incidental training of general methods courses, since the general
courses cannot present the work with sufficient emphasis to assure
correct use of visual aids in actual teaching experiences. Students
of visual-education courses recognize the inadequacy of verbal
instruction alone in many teaching situations owing to the lack
of experience or similarity of experience among any group of
children. They also understand the lack of teaching possibili-
ties in many textbook pictures and their accompanying legends,
and the need for teachers to train their pupils to interpret pic-
tures. They recognize, further, that a single picture, at best,
is static. It can only show a scene as it was the moment the
camera was flashed. It cannot show change, it cannot show an
object from more than one angle, nor can it show more than
one step in a process. A single picture is filled with abstractions
of size, sound, color, odor, taste, temperature, weight, distance,
depth, texture or substance, feeling, emotion, speed and motion;
and frequently there are also abstractions of location, time of
day or year, structure, or relationship. The student sees, also,
that these abstractions and limitations of pictures must be met
with clear vivid descriptions, interpretative questions, careful
testing of what the child has gained from the picture, and class
discussions. The teacher may turn to the rich and varied field of
visual aids and select those especially designed to overcome
these limitations. Each visual aid makes its own contribution
to teaching situations.

So vital a factor in the successful program of the classroom
teacher should not be left to incidental training. A special
visual-education course, broad in scope and practical in its
applications, should be part of the required training of every
classroom teacher.

Mclsaac, John S. (Department of Education, Geneva Col-
lege, Beaver Falls, Pa.) "What the Supervisor Wants in
Visual Education." Educational Screen. 16:151-2. May
1937.

This is a summary of a study made among supervising
officials to determine what they considered to be the relative
efficiency of the different sensory aids, and the extent to which
special training should be provided for each in normal schools.
The check lists were sent to about seventy superintendents,

440 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

principals, and supervisors of instruction in three states in the
service area of the college. Some forty responses were secured,
although some did not answer all questions.

The returns showed a definite majority in favor of a special
course in visual instruction, rather than stress in subject matter
or special methods courses. About 22 per cent were in favor of
offering teacher preparation in the use of sensory aids in special
methods courses and 25 per cent in content courses in the various
fields. About 53 per cent were in favor of a separate course
in visual education.

Supervisors indicated that a knowledge of and information
concerning the visual aids was more important than techniques
and skill.

Further, the questionnaires revealed that the more common
sensory aids, such as maps, blackboards, and graphs are rated
more important than the more technical ones usually associated
with visual education.

VII. PRESENT OFFERINGS IN VISUAL EDUCATION

The outlines of some courses have already been printed
in educational journals. They are reprinted here for pur-
poses of comparison.

Stracke, George A. (School of Engineering, University of
Arizona, Tucson) "What is Being Taught in Courses in
Visual Instruction ?" Educational Screen. 1 1 :204. Septem-
ber 1932.

As the answer to the question, "What is being taught in
courses in visual instruction?" could be found only from a
study of the courses themselves, each of the eighty-six institu-
tions offering such instruction, according to the 1931 directory of
the Academy of Visual Instruction, was asked for a detailed
outline of its course. Replies were received from forty- four
institutions. Of these, eleven stated that they had no course
or department of visual instruction, or that courses were no
longer being offered. Of the remaining thirty- three, some offer
the work in regular sessions, others in summer sessions only,
and a few in both. To determine the amount of time allotted
to the course or the units of credit allowed was impossible in
the majority of instances. The lower limit was fourteen one-

TEACHER PREPARATION 441

hour periods, while the upper limit was a division of the work
into three classes, each consisting of three one-hour classes and
one laboratory period per week for one semester.

Analysis of the outlines revealed a total of forty-nine topics
of which eight were taught in but one course each, while two
were listed in thirty courses. The thirty-three universities,
colleges, and normal schools that sent outlines displayed a
remarkable concurrence in emphasis on twelve topics. From 75
to 90 per cent of the institutions listed these topics, which are
given here in inverse order according to frequency :

1. The philosophy and psychology of visual instruction

2. Projectors : operation, mechanics, and optics

3. Motion pictures : types, standards of evaluation instruc-
tional, informational, auditorium or entertainment

4. Sources of visual aids

5. Lantern slides and their use

6. Stereographs and their use

7. Photographs and prints and their use

8. Exhibits

9. Organization of a city department
11. History of visual instruction

11. Field trips

12. Care, repair, and storage of materials and equipment

Seven additional topics were offered in a majority of courses.
Five courses offered all nineteen of the topics. The second group
consisted of :

13. Museum trips

14. Specimens

15. Models

16. Bibliography

17. Film slides

18. Blackboard materials and techniques

19. Photographic principles and practice

Ten institutions agreed on fifteen of the above nineteen
topics. The remaining thirty-one topics are indicative of the
diversity of opinion existing among visual-education instructors
as to the value of these phases of our work. Most of. the thirty-
nine are offered only in one or two or, at the most, five institu-
tions. One third or less of the courses included the following
topics: visual aids in specific subjects, television, a general

442 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

discussion of types of visual aids, organization of a school depart-
ment, maps, charts and graphs, teacher training, diagrams,
standard equipment recommendations, photographic darkroom
practice, research, classroom conditions, globes, laboratory prac-
tice in preparation of visual aids, dramatization, demonstration
lessons involving use of aids, functions of a state department,
posters, tests of visual aids, radio, school and community, still
films, cartoons, organization of a county department, textbook
illustrations, screens, school museums, puppets, classroom demon-
strations and experiments, duplicating processes mimeograph,
hectograph, and the like.

Some courses which do not list a number of these topics as
such may include them under more general headings. Whenever
such inclusion was indicated, however, the subtopic was listed
in order to make the survey as comprehensive as possible.

The importance of some topics has undoubtedly been under-
estimated, and an arithmetical count such as was necessary to
use here is not a measure of true values. A weighted value
arrived at by a consideration of the relative importance and
history of the department or institution offering each topic
might effect a considerable change.

All the nineteen topics included in the first two divisions,
with possibly four or five of the remainder, including teacher
training, research, general discussion of all types of visual aids,
demonstration lessons involving use of aids, and laboratory
practice in preparation of aids, constitute a good basic outline for
a course of study in visual instruction. 19

"Another Course Outline." Educational Screen. 9:280-1. No-
vember 1930.

The outline given below was developed by Abraham Krasker
and used by him at Boston University in the course in visual
education offered by the School of Education.

THE USE OF VISUAL EDUCATION MATERIALS IN TEACHING

1. Introduction: the need for guidance in the use of this
visual-aid method in education.

2. The aim of the course is to prepare the teacher for the
use of the available visual-aid materials that correlate with the

"See also Starnes, W. Gayle. The Present Status of Teacher Training in the
Use of Visual Aids. Univ. of Kentucky, Lexington. 1937. mimeo.

TEACHER PREPARATION 443

subject taught. Each teacher prepares a list of the available
visual aids for the teaching of a specific subject or subjects in
a given grade. This material is correlated with the course of
study, and methods for the use of the visual aids are discussed
and practiced.

3. The history of the use of visual-aid materials in education.

4. The present status of the use of visual-aid materials.

5. Advantages and disadvantages of this new method of
education.

6. A consideration of some of the problems arising from the
use of visual-aid materials.

7. The criteria for the selection of available visual aids ta
determine their suitability for school subjects.

8. The application of these criteria in the selection of suit-
able visual-aid materials.

9. The use of pictures; the available pictures; the selection
of pictures for the specific school subject taught; a considera-
tion of the methods used in teaching; method of filing; practice in
the use of the necessary machinery to project pictures.

10. The use of slides; the available slides; the selection of
slides for the specific school subject taught; a consideration of
the methods used in teaching; method of filing; practice in the
use of the necessary machinery to project slides.

11. The use of film slides; the available film slides; the
selection of film slides for the specific school subject taught; a
consideration of the methods used in teaching; method of filing;
practice in the use of the necessary machinery to project film
slides.

12. The use of motion pictures; the available motion pic-
tures; selection of motion pictures for the specific school subject
taught; a consideration of the methods used in teaching; method
of filing; practice in the use of the necessary machinery to.
project motion pictures.

13. The use of other visual aids collections, exhibits,,
posters, and so on; the other visual aids available; the selection
of other visual aids; a consideration of the methods used in
teaching; method of filing; practice in the use of the necessary
machinery to project other visual aids.

14. A consideration of the possible schemes for using motion
pictures in the schools: advantages, disadvantages, specific
use of each plan ; assembly plan for all the pupils of the school ;

444 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

grade plan for all the pupils of a given grade ; subject plan for
all the pupils of a given subject; class plan for all the pupils of
a given class.

15. Comparative methods for the efficient use of motion
pictures and how the method varies with the type of visual aid
and with the type of motion picture: no preparation; predis-
cussion; discussion during projection; questions directing pupil's
attention to important points; discussion after projection, and
the like.

The core course offered by the State of Pennsylvania has
been issued in mimeograph form for the use of instructors
in the normal schools of the state. An outline of the course
follows. The outline appears in another form in Emmert's
article.

A Summary of the Techniques of Visual-Sensory Aids for
Teachers in Service and Teachers in Training. Common-
wealth of Pennsylvania. Harrisburg. 1935. 50 p. (Mimeo-
graphed). Approved by Henry Klonower, chief of the
Teacher Division, C. F. Hoban, director of the State Museum,
and James N. Rule, superintendent of public instruction.

Committee statement. This revised outline is the outcome
of a meeting of visual-education instructors in the teacher-
preparation institutions of Pennsylvania. The summary is a
refinement and amplification of the one used in certain accredited
colleges and universities in Pennsylvania for the past several
years.

The committee responsible for the present revision developed
its outline around the recommendation of the Department of
Visual Instruction of the National Education Association, which
it unanimously endorses. The committee feels that in addition to
its many constructive features the suggested course provides
for the accomplishment of two very desirable aims: (1) It will
prevent duplication of effort through the centralizing of
responsibility for common backgrounds, procedures, and tech-
niques. (2) The successful completion of this mandated course
insures to every teacher in training a body of knowledge, skills,
and constructive procedures that if applied in schoolroom prac-
tice should contribute tremendously to a more meaningful content
of curriculum units.

TEACHER PREPARATION 445

The committee was made up of the following persons : Leslie
C. Krebs, State Teachers' College, Shippenberg; Herbert L.
Spencer, University of Pittsburgh; Wilber Emmert, State
Teachers' College, Indiana ; L. Paul Miller, Central High School,
Scranton ; R. G. Walters, Grove City College, Grove City ; Henry
Klonower (Chairman), Chief of Teacher Division.

OUTLINE OF COURSE

1. BACKGROUND

Psychological justification ; history of education ; visual
methods as used in educational systems of the past;
present implications

2. VERBALISM

Examples of verbalism ; how it can be corrected

3. VALUES OF VISUAL-SENSORY AIDS AS REVEALED BY USE
Service to agencies other than educational ; service to
special fields of education ; service to all types of class-
room teaching

4. VALUES OF VISUAL-SENSORY AIDS AS REVEALED BY IN-
VESTIGATIONS

Specifically: the studies of Pritchett and Merton; the
report for the International Congress of Educational
Cinematography, 1934; the survey reported in the 1934
Elementary Principals' Thirteenth Yearbook ; and that
of E. I. Way for the United States Department of Com-
merce. Generalizations from these studies. Studies
dealing with specific types of aids are listed for con-
sideration

5. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL BACKGROUND OF VISUAL-SENSORY
AIDS

6. TYPES OF VISUAL-SENSORY AIDS

Classified as aids using the eye (vision) apparatus and
equipment; aids using the eye and ear; aids using the
ear ; aids using activity ; miscellaneous aids

7. THE SCHOOL JOURNEY OR FIELD TRIP

Definition; advantages or values; definite purposes;
technique

8. THE OBJECT-SPECIMEN-MODEL

Definition; advantages; technique; assembling; housing

9. APPARATUS AND EQUIPMENT

(See Minimum Standard Equipment of Visual-Sensory
Materials [Appendix C], set up by the State Visual
Education Committee.)

10. PROJECTION LENSES, MIRRORS, SCREENS, ETC.
Kinds ; uses ; sources ; standards for selection

446 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

11. STILL PROJECTORS

Kinds ; how to handle ; types of difficulties ; care ; sources

12. MAKING LANTERN SLIDES
Laboratory period

13. MOTION-PICTURE PROJECTION
Silent and sound ; care ; use ; sources

14. STILL AND MOTION-PICTURE CAMERAS

How to handle ; parts of each ; sources of materials

15. PICTORIAL MATERIALS AND REPRESENTATIONS
Types; standards for selection; techniques of using

16. TEXTBOOK ILLUSTRATION, PHOTOGRAPH, PRINT, CUT-
OUT, STEREOGRAPH

Advantages of each ; standards ; techniques ; sources

17. LANTERN SLIDES

Kinds; values; technique; care; sources; standards

18. REPRESENTATION MATERIALS

Types of representation materials; values; techniques

19. MISCELLANEOUS AIDS

These include miniature sets, pageants, demonstrations,
exhibits, dramatizations, booklets, etc. ; values of each ;
standards ; sources

20. BLACKBOARD AND BULLETIN BOARD
Purposes ; techniques of use

21. RADIO AND RADIO VISION

Values; uses; equipment needed; sources of informa-
tion; techniques for use. Radio vision means use of
slides in class during a broadcast for illustration

22. INTEGRATING VISUAL-SENSORY AIDS
Two type lesson plans are given

23. STANDARD VISUAL-SENSORY EQUIPMENT

For elementary schools of less than eight rooms ; for
elementary schools of more than eight rooms; for
junior and senior high schools (See Minimum Stand-
ard Equipment [Appendix C].)

24. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Twenty- four references

25. ADMINISTRATION OF A VISUAL-SENSORY AIDS PROGRAM
This would include preparation of teachers, budget
allocation, integrating with curriculum units, and super-
vision for effective use

Appendix A. Glossary of Terms Used in Projection
Appendix B. Magnification Formula and Tables
Appendix C. Minimum Standard Equipment of Visual-
Sensory Materials general visual equipment; visual
equipment by subjects: art, commercial work, English,

TEACHER PREPARATION 447

geography (elementary, junior-high-school), health and
physical education, history, Latin, mathematics, music,
science (elementary, biology, physical science, second-
ary-grade)

Appendix D. Minimum Equipment for a Course in Tech-
niques of Visual-Sensory Aids

[Specific references and specific student activities are listed

for each unit.]

Emmert, Wilber (Instructor in Visual Education and Sci-
ence, State Teachers College, Indiana, Pennsylvania) "Core
Course of a Visual-Sensory Aids Program." National Edu-
cation Association Proceedings. 1932:790-3. A report sub-
mitted to the Department of Visual Instruction of the Na-
tional Education Association.

The proposed core course in visual instruction was developed
by a committee appointed by the National Education Association
for that purpose. The report is divided into four major parts.
The first deals with the significance of the report, the second
describes how the course was developed, the third gives some
significant declarations, and the fourth presents the course itself.
The suggested course represents the combined judgments
of the leaders of visual instruction in the United States as to
"what a core course in visual-sensory aids should contain." A
tentative outline of a core course was submitted to twenty-seven
visual-instruction teachers in twenty-five states representing all
sections of the country. Eighteen usable replies were received.
In addition, a number of printed and mimeographed courses of
study in visual instruction were used in this study. A tabulation
of frequencies of common elements for the course was made.

Content and method in this course, as in all school subjects,
are the products of an evolution through authority, opinion,
speculation, and research.

A determined stand must be taken on certain questions :
The initial core course in visual instruction should be
mandatory ; every person in teacher training for public-school
work should be required to take a laboratory course in visual-
sensory aids.

The core course should contain those elements common to
practically all subjects.

The core course should carry three semester hours of college
credit. In the conduct of the course due consideration should

448 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

be given to (a) the philosophy and psychology of visual-
sensory aids, (b) a technique for their use, and (c) skill in
the use of the various visual-sensory aids.

The Department of Visual Instruction of the National Edu-
cation Association is justified in an aggressive program which
will see, within the next decade, a core course in visual in-
struction in every progressive state.

A course for directors and supervisors is in the offing, and
special courses, such as visual-sensory aids in science, and
so on, will be popular.

If other courses are developed, the core course should be in-
sisted upon as a separate course before the special courses
are given.

General description of the course. "This course is based
upon the philosophy that sensory experience and mental activi-
ties parallel each other in the learning process. Visual and other
sensory aids, therefore, should hold a major place in the teaching
of practically all subjects and on all levels of learning. To
be a well-balanced course, and of the greatest value to prospective
teachers and the teachers in service, it should give training in and
an effective technic for the use of all types of visual-sensory
aids. This course should be mandatory on the part of every
person preparing to teach in the public schools. The course is
designed for the preparation of teachers of the various subjects,
and should contain those elements common to practically every
subject."

Objectives. 1. To learn the meaning of the common terms
used in visual-sensory education; to give the student a concrete
and meaningful vocabulary.

2. The development of skill in selecting the suitable teaching
aids from those available for the teaching of a specific subject.

3. The development of a projection technique which will
assure an efficient use of all the essential projectors in classroom
work.

4. To provide the prospective teacher with a body of knowl-
edge as well as a direct acquaintance with the useful sources of
information which will be helpful in the teaching of the various
subjects of the curriculum.

5. To give training in the organization of the visual-sensory
aids for the various subjects so that the aids may be available and
usable in the classroom.

TEACHER PREPARATION 449

6. The development of a proper technique for the efficient
use of all the teaching aids.

7. To acquaint the prospective teacher with the value of
research in determining educational materials and methods.

8. To acquaint the prospective teacher with the psychological
aspects underlying visual-sensory aids.

9. To acquaint the prospective teacher, or the teacher in
service, with minimum standards for visual-sensory equipment
and standards for evaluating the various visual-sensory aids.

Method. The lecture-demonstration, discussion, and labora-
tory method will be used throughout the course. Certain phases
of the work can be best presented by the instructor in lecture-
demonstration form. Other phases of the work lend themselves
to other methods of instruction. Projects suitable for the
various grades will be worked out by the group. Emphasis will
be placed upon suitable methods of presentation and ways of
further stimulating the interest of the student. The student
will be taught how and when to use visual and other sensory aids.
Maps, specimens, objects, models, the blackboard, projectors,
slides, films, field trips, and the like, will constitute the materials
of the course.

Some supplementary references on the Pennsylvania core
course in visual-sensory aids are as follows :

"Course of Study in Visual Education." Educational Screen.
14:135. May 1935.

An outline of the twenty-five units contained in the Pennsyl-
vania revised course of study in visual education.

Emmert, Wilber. "Visual-Sensory Aids in Education : (Core
Course) Education. 55 :78. October 1934.
An outline of the same course with a brief history of its
development. Also printed in the International Review of
Educational Cinematography. October 1932.

"Pennsylvania Makes Visual Education Course Mandatory."
Educational Screen. 13 :272. December 1934.

450 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

The course next described is based on the Pennsylvania
core course, but the means by which the objectives were
attained are both interesting and suggestive.

Yeager, William A. (Professor of School Administration,
University of Pittsburgh) " Preparing Teachers in the Use
of Visual-Sensory Aids." Educational Screen. 15:74-6.
March 1936.

A discussion of the conception of education as an adjustment
to and a reliving of life experiences brings us to the problem
of a more efficient method by which this educational process can
be accomplished. Life can become rich and full only in so far
as the environment we live in can be understood and appreciated.
Since sensory experiences constitute the basis of the child's edu-
cational pattern, with visual experiences accounting for probably
three- fourths of our sensory experiences, visual education, or
more accurately, sensory aids, contribute greatly to the ends
of education. It is unfortunate that visual education has become
associated for many people with "seeing experiences" alone,
when in reality it includes all sensory experiences. Some more
inclusive and appropriate term should be coined to fit this thought.

The State of Pennsylvania has recognized these larger im-
plications of educational development through sensory experience.
The State Council of Education, after noting the favorable
response to courses in sensory aids at teacher-preparation insti-
tutions, passed a regulation requiring "the completion of a course
in visual education of all persons to whom shall be issued a
permanent college certificate after September 1935." Teachers
may complete this required course either as part of their pre-
service education, or as part of the six semester hours that must
be completed subsequent to the issue of the provisional college
certificate, if this certificate is to be made permanent.

At the University of Pittsburgh a course was offered during
the 1935 summer session. It was held in the Frick Training
School. There were forty-five teachers in service enrolled in the
course, although the course was offered on an undergraduate
basis. There were four one-hour classroom periods and one
two-hour laboratory period weekly. During the following fall
session, the course was given to juniors and seniors in the School
of Education on a similar basis.

TEACHER PREPARATION 451

Some of the activities of the course were as follows: The
problems of preparing class presentations of each type of visual-
sensory aid and of constructing or developing the necessary
material and applying it to given classroom situations, both on
the elementary and on the secondary-school levels, were assigned
to committees of from two to four persons. The cartoon com-
mittee drew cartoons, or collected them from newspapers, and
demonstrated their instructional value; the puppet committee
constructed all types of puppets and marionettes and wrote a
play or dramatized a lesson to show their possibilities as teaching
aids; the object-specimen-model committee made and collected
an exhibit of each of these types; the photography committee
took pictures and demonstrated the use of the camera in teaching.
A school journey was made to the Carnegie Museum and Art
Exhibit. All types of homemade slides were made and demon-
strated. A radio in the classroom offered an opportunity for
the evaluation of programs. Every member of the class was
required to learn to operate three different makes of 16-mm.
projectors to qualify for a license to operate nontheatrical pro-
jectors. As a final test, each student was required to apply
as many as possible of the several visual-sensory aids discussed
to a particular subject or to a special grade level. This activity
enabled students to select the aids best adapted to their particular
fields and to evaluate their possibilities in the light of the content
to be included and the ends to be attained.

A visual-education exhibit marked the climax of the course.
An exhibit committee took care of the arrangement of materials,
but the other committees already described submitted materials
to be placed on exhibition. Members of the class acted as guides
to visitors during the exhibit period.

Mention should be made here of the necessity for adequate
equipment for the proper conduct of the course. The course
should not be offered if adequate materials and equipment are
not available. Students must learn by doing.

The need for a separate course for visual instruction appears
to be very urgent. Methods courses do not place adequate
emphasis on the use and care of sensory aids. Separate courses
are necessary so that every prospective and in-service teacher will
be brought in direct contact, through participation and applica-
tion, with visual-sensory aids developed sequentially and

452 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

practically applied. There should be a conscious effort to
emphasize and evaluate them as educational tools.

Now that teacher-preparation institutions have accepted the
challenge of the changing social order and are offering courses
in visual-sensory aids, it remains the responsibility for teachers
in the public schools to evaluate their offerings in the light of
effective materials and methods adapted to this desired end.
Perhaps administrators and supervisors themselves ought to be
awakened to the possibilities of such courses, so that they may
exercise leadership. In the last analysis, granting an adequate
preparation, the effective functioning of these procedures depends
very largely upon the personality and attitude of the teacher.

Miller describes the way in which a course was developed
at Bucknell University in Lewisburg, Pennsylvania. The
three summaries that follow will give a clear idea of the
work being done there.

Miller, L. Paul (Director of Visual Education, Central
High School, Scranton; Instructor, Bucknell University
Summer School) "Teacher Training in Use of Visual Aids."
Educational Screen. 9 :234, 237. October 1930.

One method of developing a course in visual education was
tried at Bucknell University during the summer of 1930. Visual
aids were used in the demonstration school in actual classroom
situations without changing in any way the term plan. An
opaque projector, glass slides, and 16-mm. films were among
the aids demonstrated. Follow-up tests, observation of the
practice teachers, and school journeys were all introduced in the
natural course of the lessons.

After these demonstrations, which occupied several weeks, the
practice teachers, and school journeys were all introduced in the
use of visual aids; (2) types of visual aids; and (3) sources
of materials, particularly with reference to the subjects of major
interest. The following guide was prepared in mimeograph
form and rilled in by students taking the course :

I. Values and Outcomes of Visual Aids. (An extensive read-
ing list was appended and space was provided for additional
references. )

II. Types of Visual Aids. (A reading list was added and space
for additional references was provided for each of the
topics which follow.)

TEACHER PREPARATION 453

III. Sources of Materials Which May be Used in My Own
Teaching-. ( Source lists were suggested. )

At the close of the summer session, in an effort to secure
more comprehensive data, a questionnaire form was sent to all
institutions running summer courses.

Miller, L. Paul (Bucknell University) "Practice Teaching
in the Use of Visual Aids: Bucknell Plan." Educational
Screen. 10:241. October 1931.

Training teachers in the use of motion pictures and other
visual aids by directing their use of such materials in actual
high-school classrooms was one of the features of the Bucknell
University Summer Session of 1931.

A completely organized high school for practice teaching
is conducted there during the summer. The training teachers
are heads of departments in large city school systems. Those
in charge report that the stress on the use of visual aids in the
demonstration school has been a very successful experiment in
many ways. Demonstrations of the use of apparatus, exhibits,
museums, school journeys, charts, graphs, models, dramatizations,
newspaper and magazine cut-outs, stereographs, glass slides, film
slides, 16-mm. silent and sound films, were given in the demon-
stration school in the teaching of all major subjects.

Teachers were instructed in the construction of these ma-
terials, including homemade motion pictures. A special class,
in which more advanced instruction was given in the techniques
of using visual aids, was conducted daily for summer-session
students who were experienced teachers. In this class the use
of visual materials in teaching visual education was effectively
worked out. One feature of the class was a journey to Reading,
Pennsylvania, to study the splendid use made of the museum
by the Reading school district under Levi Mengel, pioneer in
the country in the use of objective materials in actual classroom
teaching.

Equipment used at Bucknell included motion-picture cameras,
16 mm. and 35 mm. projectors, glass-slide projectors, film-slide
projectors and attachments, opaque projectors, daylight equip-
ment, screens, sound projector in a local theater, homemade slide
materials, sound and silent films, slides, film slides, apparatus
for a laboratory course, and a comprehensive library of visual-
education books, magazines, and clippings.

454 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

One project in the class for experienced teachers was the
listing of visual aids for the Pennsylvania state course of study
in chemistry. Another was the correlation of visual aids with
the teaching of vocational guidance a combination of two new
fields. Original scenarios for educational motion pictures were
also prepared. Films of pupils in the demonstration school were
taken and projected in the high-school auditorium.

Miller, L. Paul (Bucknell University) "Teacher Training
in Visual Instruction." Visual Review. 1932:15-16.

A visual-education course has been developed at Bucknell
University, based on the laboratory method. The course consists
of forty-five units of instruction, each unit introduced by a
practical problem referring directly to actual classroom situations.
Visual aids are used throughout, with a minimum of theory
and maximum of practice. The materials for the instructional
work are in mimeographed form. Some of the units were out-
lined in the Educational Screen, January through May, 1932.
The topics were :

1. Why should I study the uses of visual and other sensory
aids in education?

2. What should be the nature of a laboratory course in
the use of visual and other sensory aids in education ?

3. What is implied by the term "visual and other sensory
aids"?

4. What are the main types of visual aids and which types
can be most useful in my teaching?

5. How can visual aids be used in teaching my major
subject?

6. What specific visual aids can be used in teaching my
major subject?

7. What specific visual aids can be used with each unit in
the teaching of my major subject?

8. What is the background of visual aids in education?

9. What values and outcomes have visual aids which can
make them useful in my classes ?

10. What are the principal functions of visual aids in my
teaching ?

11. What use can I make of science apparatus ?

12. What objects, specimens, and models can I use in the
classroom ?

13. How can school journeys be effectively used in my
subject?

14. What are the relative values of photographic prints ?

TEACHER PREPARATION 455

15. What merits have stereographs ?

16. What purposes can be served by glass slides?

17. How are glass slides made ?

18. What advantages have film slides and still films and how
are they used?

20 19. What types of "still" projectors are there?
20 20. How are "still" projectors used?

21. What is the place of motion pictures in education?

22. What kinds of motion-picture films are there? How
can they be evaluated ?

23. How are films cared for and repaired ?

24. How are silent motion-picture projectors operated and
constructed ?

25. How are motion-picture projectors with synchronized
sound constructed and operated ?

26. What are the possibilities of sound pictures in class-
rooms ?

20 27. How are lenses used in projection?

20 28. What facts about electricity are important in projec-
tion?
20 29. How are classrooms prepared for projection?

30. How are amateur motion-picture cameras constructed
and operated? How can they be used by schools?

31. How are scenarios written?

32. How are lessons planned in which projected still or
motion pictures are used ?

33. Should there be places in my lesson plans for charts,
graphs, diagrams, posters, and cartoons ?

34. What are the possibilities of blackboard sketches and
diagrams in my teaching ?

35. What kinds of maps and globes are available?

36. Can pageants, tableaux, or dramatizations contribute
anything to my subject?

37. Can radio programs be helpful in classrooms ?

38. What principles of educational psychology are of special
interest in our study of visual aids?

39. What is the minimum standard equipment for the use
of visual aids in my subject?

40. Of what should teacher-training courses in the use of
visual aids consist?

41. What are some current events in the visual field?

42. What are some problems of the administration of
visual aids?

80 These units have been described in detail in the articles published in the
Educational Screen. January through May 1932.

456 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

43. What are some research problems in use of visual aids?

44. What are some future prospects of visual aids ?

45. What are some important general conclusions regarding
the technique of visual aids ?

Some of the courses reported in magazine articles deal
with certain aspects of visual instruction. For example, the
course given under the direction of the Bronx Boro-wide
Teachers Association of New York City is divided into two
sessions. One, meeting on Tuesdays, is concerned with
"Methods and Use of Visual Instruction Material"; the
other, meeting on Thursdays, deals with "The Motion Pic-
ture" both theatrical and educational. This course was
reported in Educational Screen (14:288) for December 1935.

Another course given at the American Museum of Nat-
ural History in New York City dealt only with the mechan-
ical aspect of visual instruction. An outline of this course
appeared in Educational Screen of December 1930 under the
title, "Teachers' Course in Mechanics of Visual Instruction."

A more complete outline of a course on the mechanical
aspect of visual instruction was published by L. P. Miller
in a series of articles entitled "Units of Instruction for
Teachers' Training Courses." This series appeared in the
Educational Screen (11:7, 42, 72, 108, 138), January
through May 1932.

Teachers of visual instruction who plan to include a unit
on the use of visual aids in geography will find "Materials
for Visual Instruction in Geography," by William M.
Gregory, Alfred W. Abrams, and Rupert Peters Chapter
XXIV in The Teaching of Geography, Thirty-second Year-
book, National Society for the Study of Education (Public
School Publishing Company. Bloomington, Illinois. 1933)
one of the best in the literature. Standards are set up for
satisfactory geographical pictures and suggestions are offered
for the use of photographs, slides, and motion-picture films
in the teaching of geography.

APPENDIX

APPENDIX

BOOKS ON THE SUBJECT OF MOTION PICTURES AND
OTHER SENSORY AIDS IN EDUCATION

I. General Survey of the Field

"Aids to Teaching in the Elementary School." Thirteenth
Yearbook, Department of Elementary Principals. Na-
tional Education Association. 1934.

Benoit-Levy, Jean. L'instruction visuelle aux Etats-Unis.
Editions du Cineopse. 73 Blvd. de Crenelle. Paris.
1936.

Dale, Edgar and Ramseyer, Lloyd L. Teaching with
Motion Pictures: Handbook of Administrative Prac-
tice. American Council on Education. Washington,
D.C 1937.

Dent, Ellsworth C. The Audio-Visual Handbook, rev. ed.
Society for Visual Education. Chicago. 1937.

Dorris, Anna V. Visual Instruction in the Public Schools.
Ginn and Co. Boston. 1928.

Ellis, D. C. and Thornborough, L. Motion Pictures in
Education. Thomas Y. Crowell Co. New York. 1923.

George, W. H. The Cinema in School. Isaac Pitman.
London. 1935.

Hoban, Charles F., Hoban, Charles F., Jr., and Zisman,
Samuel B. Visualizing the Curriculum. Cordon Com-
pany. New York. 1937.

Hollis, A. P. Motion Pictures for Instruction. Houghton,
Mifflin Co. Boston. 1924.

Johnson, W. H. Fundamentals of Visual Instruction.
Educational Screen, Inc. Chicago. 1927.

Koon, Cline M. Motion Pictures in Education in the
United States : A report compiled for the International
Congress of Educational and Instructional Cinema-
tography. University of Chicago Press. 1934.

Lauwerys, J. A. ed. Film in the School. Christopher.
London. 1935.

"Materials of Instruction." Eighth Yearbook, Department
of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction, National
Education Association. Bureau of Publications, Teach-
ers College, Columbia University. New York. 1935.

McClusky, F. Dean. Visual Instruction: Its Value and
Needs. Mancall Co. New York. 1931.

460 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Motion Picture in Education: Its Status and Needs.

American Council on Education. Washington, D.C.

1937.
Ottley, D. C. The Cinema in Education : A Handbook for

Teachers. George Routledge and Sons. London. 1935.
Visual Aids in the Schools. New York State Association

of Elementary Principals, Visual Aids Division. Rollin

W. Thompson. Utica, N.Y. 1935.

II. The Sound Film in Education

Devereux, F. L. The Educational Talking Picture, rev. ed.

University of Chicago Press. Chicago. 1936.
Brunstetter, M. R. How to Use the Educational Sound

Film. University of Chicago Press. Chicago. 1937.

III. Published Research Studies in the Field

Arnspiger, V. C. Measuring the Effectiveness of Sound

Pictures as Teaching Aids. Bureau of Publications,

Teachers College, Columbia University. New York.

1933.
Consitt, F. The Value of Films in History Teaching.

Bell and Sons. London. 1931.
Freeman, F. N. and others. Visual Education. University

of Chicago Press. Chicago. 1924.
Knowlton, D. C. and Tilton, J. W. Motion Pictures in

History Teaching. Yale University Press. 1929.
The film in national life. George Allen and Unwin, Ltd.

1932.
Marchant, James, ed. The cinema in education. George

Allen and Unwin, Ltd. 1925.

Rulon, P. J. Sound Motion Pictures in Science Instruc-
tion. Harvard University Press. 1933.
Sigman, J. E. The Origin and Development of Visual

Education in Philadelphia Schools. Temple University.

Philadelphia. 1933.
Sound films in schools. Experiment by the National Union

of Teachers in the schools of Middlesex, England.

Schoolmaster. 1931.
Weber, J. J. Comparative Effectiveness of Some Visual

Aids in Seventh Grade Instruction. Educational

Screen, Inc. Chicago. 1921.
Weber, J. J. Picture Values in Education. Educational

Screen, Inc. Chicago. 1928.

APPENDIX 461

Weber, J. J. Visual Aids in Education. Valparaiso Uni-
versity. Valparaiso, Ind. 1930.

Wood, B. D. and Freeman, F. N. Motion Pictures in the
Classroom. Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston. 1929.

Westfall, L. H. Verbal Accompaniments to Educational
Motion Pictures. Teachers College, Columbia Uni-
versity. New York. 1934.

IV. Directories or Source Lists

The Educational Film Catalog. H. W. Wilson Company.
New York. 1936. With quarterly supplements.

Educational Screen. Chicago. Monthly.

Brown, H. E. and Bird, J. Motion Pictures and Lantern
Slides for Elementary Visual Education. Teachers
College, Columbia University. New York. 1931.

Koon, C. M. and Noble, A. W. National Visual Instruc-
tion Directory. American Council on Education.
Washington, D.C. 1936.

National encyclopedia of educational films and 16mm.
apparatus. Central Information Bureau for Educa-
tional Films, Ltd. London. 1936.

Townsend, Mary E. and Stewart, Alice G. Audio-Visual
Aids for Teachers . . . H. W. Wilson Company. New
York. 1937.

Woodring, Maxie N. and Harold, Gilbert. Enriched
Teaching of Commercial Subjects in the High School.
. . . (Enriched teaching series) Teachers College,
Columbia University. New York. 1930.

Woodring, Maxie N. and Sabin, F. E. Enriched Teach-
ing of Latin in the High School. . . . (Enriched teach-
ing series) Teachers College, Columbia University.
New York. 1930.

Woodring, Maxie N. and Sanford, Vera. Enriched
Teaching of Mathematics in the High School. . . .
(Enriched teaching series) Teachers College, Colum-
bia University. New York. 1928.

Woodring, Maxie N. and Schwendener, Norma. Enriched
Teaching of Physical Education in the High School. . . .
(Enriched teaching series) Teachers College, Columbia
University. New York. 1929.

Woodring, Maxie N. and others. Enriched Teaching of
English in the Junior and Senior High School. . . .
(Enriched teaching series) Teachers College, Columbia
University. New York. 1934.

462 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Woodring, Maxie N. and others. Enriched Teaching of
Science in the High School. . . . (Enriched teaching
series) Teachers College, Columbia University. New
York. 1928.

V. Theatrical Motion Pictures and Education

Adler, Mortimer Jerome. Art and Prudence. . . . Long-
mans. New York. 1937.

Bardeche, Maurice and Brasillach, Robert. History of
Motion Pictures. Norton. November 1937.

Barnes, Walter. The Photoplay as Literary Art. Educa-
tional and Recreational Guides, Inc. Newark, N.J.
1936.

Beman, L. T. Selected Articles on Censorship of the
Theater and Moving Pictures. H. W. Wilson Com-
pany. New York. 1931.

Blumer, Herbert. Movies and Conduct. (Payne Fund
Studies: Motion Pictures and Youth) Macmillan.
New York. 1933.

Blumer, Herbert and Hauser, Philip M. Movies, De-
linquency, and Crime. ( Payne Fund Studies : Motion
Pictures and Youth) Macmillan. New York. 1933.

Buchanan, Andrew. The Art of Film Production. Pitman.
London. 1936. Distributed by Educational and Recre-
ational Guides, Inc. Newark, N.J.

Charters, W. W. Motion Pictures and Youth: A Sum-
mary. (Payne Fund Studies: Motion Pictures and
Youth) Macmillan. New York. 1933.

Dale, Edgar. The Content of Motion Pictures. (Payne
Fund Studies: Motion Pictures and Youth) Mac-
millan. 1935.

Dale, Edgar. How to Appreciate Motion Pictures.
(Payne Fund Studies: Motion Pictures and Youth)
Macmillan. 1933.

Dysinger, W. S. and Ruckmick, C. A. Emotional Re-
sponses of Children to the Motion Picture Situation.
(Payne Fund Studies: Motion Pictures and Youth)
Macmillan. 1933.

Floherty, J. J. Moviemakers. Doubleday Doran. Garden
City, N.Y. 1935.

Forman, Henry I. Our Movie Made Children. Mac-
millan. New York. 1933.

Frutchey, Fred P. and Dale, Edgar. Evaluation in motion
picture appreciation. Ohio State Univ. 1937.

APPENDIX 463

Gale, Arthur L. How to Write a Movie. Brick Row

Book Shop. New York. 1936.
Jennings, Talbot. Romeo and Juliet: Shooting Script.

Educational and Recreational Guides, Inc. Newark,

N.J. 1937.

Kiesling, Barrett C. Talking Pictures. Johnson Com-
pany, Richmond, Va. 1937.
Lane, Tamar. New Technique of Screen Writing: A

Practical Guide to the Writing and Marketing of

Photoplays. McGraw. New York. 1937.
Lewin, William. Photoplay Appreciation in American

High Schools. D. Appleton-Century. New York.

1934.
London, Kurt. Film music. Faber and Faber. London.

1937.
Martin, Olga J. Hollywood's Movie Commandments.

H. W. Wilson Co. New York. 1937.
Mees, C. E. K. Photography. Macmillan. New York.

1937.
Miller, Helen R. and Lewis, Richard B. Film and School.

Appleton. N.Y. 1937.
Miller, Max. For the Sake of Shadows. Dutton. New

York. 1936.
Mitchell, Alice M. Children and Movies. University of

Chicago Press. 1929.
Motion Picture Review Digest. H. W. Wilson Co. New

York. Weekly cumulative index.
Movies. (Building America, vol. 2 no. 8. May 1937)

Society for Curriculum Study. N.Y.

Mullen, Mrs. Sarah McLean. How to Judge Motion
Pictures and How to Organize a Photoplay Club.
Scholastic Publishing Co. New York. 1934.

Nicoll, Allardyce. Film and Theatre. Crowell Co. New
York. 1936.

Noble, Lorraine. Four Star Scripts. Doubleday Doran.
New York. 1936.

Perlman, William J. ed. Movies on Trial. Macmillan.
New York. 1936.

Peterson, Ruth C. and Thurstone, L. L. Motion Pic-
tures and the Social Attitudes of Children. (Payne
Fund Studies : Motion Pictures and Youth) Mac-
millan. New York. 1933.

464 MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Pollard, Elizabeth W. Teaching Motion Picture Apprecia-
tion. Ohio State University. Columbus, Ohio. 1935.

Quigley, Martin J. Decency in Motion Pictures. Mac-
millan. New York. 1937.

Renshaw, Samuel and others. Children's Sleep. (Payne
Fund Studies: Motion Pictures and Youth) Mac-
millan. New York. 1933.

Roberts, Ina. When Books and Movies Meet. The
Author. Cleveland, Ohio. 1936.

Rotha, Paul. Celluloid. Longmans, Green. New York.
1933.

Rotha, Paul. The Documentary Film. Faber and Faber.
London. 1936.

Rotha, Paul. Movie Parade. Studio Publications. New
York. 1936.

Seldes, Gilbert. Movies come from America. Scribner.
1937.

Sterner, Alice P. and Bowden, W. Paul. Course of Study
in Motion Picture Appreciation. Educational and
Recreational Guides, Inc. Newark, N.J. 1935.

Strasser, Alex. Amateur Movies and How to Make
Them. Studio Publications. New York. 1937.

Terlin, Rose R. You and I and the Movies. Woman's
Press. New York. 1936.

Wead, Frank Wilbur. Our Greatest Story-teller: The
Story of Talking Pictures. (Our Changing World)
Nelson. New York. 1936.

INDEX

Boldface figures indicate summary of material; other figures
indicate citation only.

Abrams, A. W. 19, 95, 97, 257

Accountancy, visual aids in teach-
ing, 187, 188-90

Activity program, visual educa-
tion in, 190, 196, 284

Adler, M. J. 462

Administration of visual aids, 15-
108; city, 19-74; library, 87-91;
national, 101-8; school, 74-87;
state, 91-101

Administration of visual aids, his-
tory of, 32-4

Adult education, films in, 226-30

Akron, Ohio, 147

Allen, J. S. 233

Amateur film production, 87, 188-
90, 271-306

American Council on Education,
film project, 106, 374; publi-
cations, 5, 374, 402, 460

American Film Institute, 105

American history, films in teach-
ing, 190, 191-6, 197

American Museum of Natural His-
tory, 160

Anderson, C. J. 370, 437

Angell, H. E. 49

Ankeney, J. V. 389

Apple, J. H. 283

Arizona, University of, 92

Arkansas, proposed film library, 93

Arnold, R. W. 361

Arnspiger, V. C. 310, 321, 323, 329,
331, 335, 336, 350, 361, 460

Art, films in teaching, 150-2, 185-6,
230, 234; in visual education,
249

Art of the film, 225

Astell, L. A. 209, 218

Atlanta, Ga. visual education in,
43

Auditorium use of motion pictures,
78-82, 85, 127, 237-43, 311, 356

Aughinbaugh, B. A. 54, 402-3,
415

Augustine, H. M. 272

Bailey, H. M. 277

Baker, A. O. 238, 241

Bard, C. L. 54, 183

Bardeche, M. and Brasillach, R.

462

Barnes, R. M. 288
Barnes, W. 462
Barrier and Lebrun, 424
Bathurst, E. Ill
Baumeister, E. 135, 149
Beauchamp, J. B. 177
Belmont, Mass. 403
Beman, L. T. 462
Benoit-Levy, J. 225, 459
Berkeley, Calif. 27
Bernard, E. G. 207
Beutel, L. E. 405-7
Bing, M. 209, 222
Biography, films in teaching, 142
Biology, films in teaching, 222, 365.

See also Science, films in

teaching

Bird, J. and Brown, H. E. 461
Bishop, S. 152, 157
Blumer, H. 462

Blumer, H. and Hauser, P. M. 462
Boos, H. O. 280
Bowden, W. P. and Sterner, A. P.

433, 464

Bragdon, C. 285
Brasillach, R. and Bardeche, M.

462

Brigham Young University, 92, 98
Bright children, films in teaching,

168, 350-1

British Film Institute, 104
Brodshaug, M. R. 63
Brown, H. E. 210, 224, 336, 361
Brown, H. E. and Bird, J. 461
Brown, H. McC. 203
Brunstetter, M. R. 29-31, 62-7, 112,

134, 135-7, 261-3, 369, 374, 402,

408-12, 460
Buchanan, A. 462
Budget for visual education, 24, 28,

34, 43, 47, 56. 57. 68, 76, 78, 195

466

INDEX

Building America, 247
Burt, U.S. 97

California, University of, 92, 126,

265, 379
California state elementary science

program, 404
California Teachers' Association,

Visual Education Section, 394
Calo, G. 115, 128
Cameron, V. E. 336, 361
Camp Roosevelt, short course, 249-

50

Campbell, L. R. 16, 48
Cataloging of visual aids, 87-91
Central Information Bureau for

Educational Films, 461
Chambers, Elsie I. 17, 85
Charters, W. W. 311, 462
Chemistry, films in teaching, 209,

211-13, 218, 362-3
Chicago, University of, and films,

230, 232, 308

Chicago, visual education in, 33, 59
Child, E. D. 281
Children's comments, 142, 149, 153,

161, 162
Childs, A. R. and Tilton, J. W.

227-30
City administration of visual aids,

19-74
Clark, C. C. 310, 321, 325, 343, 345,

354, 361
Cleveland, visual education in, 31,

67, 79

Club, motion picture, 150, 297
Cockrum, A. E. 348, 361
College instruction with films, 230-

Collier, R. J., Jr. 81, 239
Color in pictures, 249, 253, 293
Colorado, University of, 92
Commercial geography, films in

teaching, 191, 199
Commonwealth Fund investiga-
tions, 308
Composition, oral and written, 175-

8
Consitt, F. 309, 324, 328, 335, 342,

344, 350, 351, 354, 361, 460
Cook, G. S. 145
Cooking, films in teaching, 365
Cooperative film libraries, 91, 93,
97

Course in visual education, con-
tent, 371, 376-9, 409, 415-27,
440-56

Courses in visual education, list,
370, 397-400

Courses of study, films integrated
with, 63, 404-7

Courtney, G. A. 152, 156

Crakes, C. R. 39, 46

Crawford, E. W. 391, 412

Criteria for evaluating a film les-
son, 111, 411

Criteria for evaluating films. See
Standards

Criteria for evaluating research
studies, 312-16

Criteria for evaluating use of films,
119, 161

Cummings, C. E. 101

Dale, E. 80, 105, 260, 374, 384, 428-

30, 462

Dale, E. and Frutchey, F. P. 462
Dale, E. and Ramseyer, L. L. 28,

403, 459

Dash, A. J. 343, 355, 362
Davis, F. W. 290-5
Davis, H. C. 332, 336, 347, 349,

350, 362

Davis, R. L. 333, 351, 362
Dawson, H. G. and Hopkins, B. S.

363

Deady, J. A. 297

Deaf, teaching with films, 86, 177-8
Delp, I. W. 166
Demonstration schools, visual aids

in, 139-43, 161-4
Dent, E C. 403, 459
Denver, University of, 134, 139-43
Detroit, visual education in, 69,

403
Development of visual education

in the United States, 32-4
Devereux, F. L. 267, 460
Dexheimer, L. M. 153, 161-4
Dick, G. I. 89

Dieffenbach, C. T. 135, 150
Diller, H. M. 362
Director of visual education, duties

of, 20-1, 25, 27, 33, 42, 46, 47,

51, 69, 75
Distribution of visual aids, 100, 107.

See also Administration
Doane, D. C. 263-7
Dolezal, R. M. 167

INDEX

467

Dorris, A. V. 26, 134, 149, 369,

376-9, 388, 402-3, 427, 459
Dransfield, J. E. 114, 117, 118
Drawing, films in teaching. See

Art, films in teaching
Dunn, F. W. 374, 383
Dunn, F. W. and Schneider, E.

57-9, 91-5, 403
Dysinger, W. S. and Ruckmick,

C. A. 462

Eads, L. K. 144, 236

Eads, L. K. and Stover, E. M. 236,
354-5, 362

Eastman Teaching Films, 135, 149,
154, 170, 173, 219, 271, 308

Economic geography, films in
teaching, 191, 200, 201-3

Economy of time and films, 353

Educational Screen, 461

Edwards, P. G. 59

Einbecker, W. F. 353, 362

Elementary education, motion pic-
tures in, 133-81

Elgin, 111. visual education in, 61

Elliot, P. A. 289

Ellis, D. C. and Thornborough, L.
459

Emery, J. N. 15. 39, 47, 135, 150

Emmert, W. 445, 447-9

England, use of films in, 115, 124,
153, 164, 309, 324, 361, 364

Englewood, N. J. 39

English, M. and Stratemeyer, F. B.
90, 256

English, films in teaching, 176-80,
204-6, 242-3

Enlow, E. R.. 17, 43, 44

Equipment, minimum, 76

Erpi films, 175, 207, 232, 236

Evans, M. 18, 24-6, 166

Evansville, Ind. program of audio-
visual education, 63-7, 144

Evaul, C. B. and Snyder, E. W.
82

Exceptional children, films in
teaching, 167-8, 350-1

Exchange, suggestions for motion
picture, 18, 104

Faulty film technique, 137

Filing materials of instruction, 87-

91

Filmslide vs. motion picture, 336
Filmslides, use of, 187-90
Finch, H. R. 281

Floherty, J. J. 462

Florida, University of, 92, 249

Fontegne, J. 224, 225

Forest, E. S. 277

Forman, H. J. 462

Fox, F. W. 98

Freeman, F. N. 230, 307, 323, 370,

436
Freeman, F. N. and Hoefer, C.

325, 339, 340, 343, 362
Freeman, F. N. and Reeder, E. H.

365
Freeman, F. N. and Wood, B. D.

308, 321, 324, 327, 328, 329, 332,

333, 335, 341, 344, 347, 349, 350,

355, 366, 461
Freeman, F. N., Reeder, E. H. and

Thomas, J. A. 336, 362
Freeman, F. N., Shaw, L. A. and

Walker, D. E. 325, 338, 339

362

Freeman, F. N. and others, 460
Freeman, G. L. 237, 287
French, films in teaching, 207, 208
Frutchey, F. P. and Dale, E. 462

Gale, A. L. 463

Gary, Ind. visual education in, 78

Gatto, F. M. 331, 336, 337, 348, 362

Geary, C. E. 169

Geography, films in teaching, 138,

149, 156, 157, 159, 160, 161-4,

164, 198, 265, 362, 456
George, W. H. 459
Georgia, University of, 91
Gibbs, D. 353, 363
Gilbert, A. E. 403
Ginsburg, E. B. 208
Glover, J. G. 233
Goodykoontz, B. 254
Gow, R. 115, 124
Gramet, C. A. 115, 116, 188, 295,

300

Gray, R. J. 415
Gregg, R. T. 93
Gregory, W. M. 18, 31, 67, 116,

369. 370, 421
Gross, Ella, 84

Hackett, R. J. 363
Hadley, A. M. 302
Halsey, J. H. 198
Hamilton, D. C. 275
Hamilton, W. J. 76
Handbooks for visual education,
95, 402-4

468

INDEX

Handbooks to accompany films,

404
Handwriting, films in teaching,

339, 362

Hansen, J. E. 336, 354, 363
Hardie, J. L. 116
Harold, G. and Woodring, M. N.

461

Hauser, P. M. and Blumer, H. 462
Haworth, H. A. 71, 230, 231, 415
Hays, D. G. and McAndrew, W.

403
Health, films in teaching, 149,

168-72, 288, 340, 363
Heck, A. O. 54
Henderson, H. A. 423
Herron, J. S. 238, 242
Hershey, Pa. program of audio-
visual education, 62
Hester, M. S. 86
Higher education, films in, 230-7,

342, 354, 363
Hinman, S. T. 363
History, films in teaching, 149,

165-8, 191-6, 197, 203, 342, 346,

365

Hoar, F. B. 363
Hoban, C. F. 76, 379-83, 444
Hoban, C. F., Jr. 11, 106, 374
Hoban, Hoban and Zisman, 427,

459
Hoefer, C. and Freeman, F. N.

325, 339, 340. 343, 362
Hoefer, C. and Keith, E. 339, 340,

363

Hoek, F. G. 86, 167, 415
Hoke, G. C. 171
Hoke, G. W. 152, 154
Hollinger, J. A. 15, 18, 23, 75, 115,

122
Hollis, A. P. 22, 117, 267, 325, 338,

363, 459
Hopkins, B. S. and Dawson, H. G.

363

Horn, A. 115, 120, 208, 210
Horning, S. D. 50
Hotchkiss, G. 191-6
Houghton, G. H. 363
Hutchinson, J. R. 422

Illinois, University of, 92
Indiana University, 92
Industrial arts, films in teaching,

361
Industrial films, use of, 135, 204,

211-13, 218, 226

Interest and films, 343-5
International Congress of the

Teaching and Educational

Film, 115, 125
Iowa, University of, 92
Iowa School for Deaf, 87
Iowa State College, 92, 98
Ireland, N. O. 90
Irion, M. C. and White, M. S. 394

James, H. W. 323, 363
Jenkins, J. J. and others, 420
Jennings, T. 463
Johnson, L. B. 301
Johnson, R. S. 115, 126
Johnson, W. H. 59, 459
Jones, A. H. 78, 238
Junior high school, films in, 153,
203, 365

Kansas, University of, 92

Katz, E. 185, 278, 288

Keeler, O. 282

Keith, E. and Hoefer, C. 339, 340,

363

Keliher, A. 145
Kiesling, B. C. 463
Kindergarten, films in teaching,

134, 147

Klein, M. A. 88
Kling, E. L. 284
Klonower, H. 107, 444
Knowlton, D. C. 17, 18, 49, 420
Knowlton, D. C. and Tilton, J. W.

309, 321, 325, 328, 335, 336, 341,

343, 348, 350, 356, 364, 460
Knox, R. B. 91
Koenig, C. J. 209, 215
Koon, C. M. 404, 431, 459
Koon, C. M. and Noble, A. W. 107,

461

Kooser, H. L. 98
Krasker, A. 442
Krebs, L. C. 445
Kruse, W. F. 59, 286
Kuckuk, H. M. 285

Lacy, J. V. 336, 337, 364
Lain, D. 70
Lampe, F. 116, 146
Lane, T. 463
Lantern slide service, 48
Latin, films in teaching, 277
Lauwerys, J. A. 404, 459
Lebrun and Barrier, 424
Lee, E. 180

INDEX

469

Lemon, H. B. 364

Lewin, W. 204, 205, 463

Lewis, A. B. 297

Lewis, D. K. 209, 213

Lewis, R. B. and Miller, H. R. 463

Librarians and visual aids, 87-90

Libraries and visual education, 34

Lindquist, M. A. 170

London, K. 463

Los Angeles, visual education in,

73
Lynch, M. 209, 219

McAndrew, W. and Hays, D. G.

403

McAteer, E. C. 166
McCarthy, K. 175
McClusky, F. D. 22, 32, 34, 317,

323, 324, 332, 336, 338, 353, 355,

370, 385-7, 402, 459
McClusky, F. D. and others, 420-1
McClusky, H. Y. 325, 338, 353, 364
MacLean, W. P. 253
McMillan, J. G. 85
McNall, J. J. 395
Macy, E. E. 393
Manuals, film, 404
Marchant, J. 324, 335, 364, 460
Martin, O. J. 463
Mason, W. L. 350, 364
Massachusetts, 92, 97
Mathematics, films in teaching,

206, 207
Maywood, 111. visual education in,

80

Mead, C. D. 334, 351, 353, 364
Measurement in visual education,

323-9

Mees, C. E. K. 463
Melbo, I. R. 248
Mengel, L. 453
Meola, L. K. 79, 238
Merton, E. L. 420, 438
Merton, M. 267, 370
Michigan, University of, 91
Miller, H. R. and Lewis, R. B. 463
Miller, L. P. 445, 452-5
Miller, M. 463^

Milwaukee, Wis. conference at, 374
Milwaukee Vocational School, 286
Minnesota University, 92
Mississippi, proposed film library,

93

Mitchell, A. M. 463
Mock, A. A. 350, 364

Modern languages, films in teach-
ing, 207-8

Moline, 111. 46, 70

Moore, H. K. 130

Mount, J. N. 329, 335, 348, 364

Mullen, S. McL. 434, 463

Munyan, E. A. 226

Museums and visual education, 33,
34, 65, 67, 73, 92, 200

Music, films in teaching. 348

Myers, S. E. 152, 159

National Academy of Visual In-
struction, 39, 43

National administration of visual
aids, 101-8

National Education Association,
Department of Elementary
Principals, 459; Department of
Supervisors and Directors of
Instruction, 35, 459; Depart-
ment of Visual Instruction,
130, 400, 401; Research Divi-
sion, 16, 51

National Union of Teachers, 460

Nature study, films in teaching,
142, 149

Nebraska, visual education in, 42

Neglected factors in research, 317-
33

Neuner, E. F. 173

New Jersey, 92, 370

New Jersey Visual Education As-
sociation, State T